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HQdatibh - K

[. ;. Mbw muokhs smi`tde tb kcriaunturd2 Smkt wdrd its iopniaktibhs `br sbaikn struaturds2

Khs.Kcriaunturd khe iheustry mkvd trkeitibhknny gddh vidwde ks twb sdpkrktd sdatbrs gbtm ih tdros b` tmdir amkrkatdristias

khe tmdir rbnd ih dabhboia crbwtm. Kcriaunturd mks gddh abhsiedrde tmd mknnokrl b` tmd ìrst stkcd b` edvdnbpodht, wmind

tmd edcrdd b` iheustriknizktibh mks gddh tkldh tb gd tmd obst rdndvkht iheiaktbr b` k abuhtrys prbcrdss knbhc tmd edvdnbpodht

pktm. Obrdbvdr, tmd prbpdr strktdcy `br crbwtm mks b`tdh gddh abhadivde ks bhd b` k obrd br ndss crkeukn smi`t `rbo

kcriaunturd tb iheustry, witm tmd bhus bh kcriaunturd tb ìhkhad tmd smi`t ih tmd ìrst stkcd.

Umis vidw, mbwdvdr, hb nbhcdr kppdkrs tb gd kpprbpriktd. Bh tmd bhd mkhe, tmd rbnd b` kcriaunturd ih tmd prbadss b`

edvdnbpodht mks gddh rdkpprkisde khe rdvknude `rbo tmd pbiht b` vidw b` its abhtrigutibh tb iheustriknizktibh khe its

iopbrtkhad `br mkrobhibus edvdnbpodht khe pbnitiakn khe dabhboia stkginity. Bh tmd btmdr mkhe, kcriaunturd itsdn` mks

gdabod k `bro b` iheustry, ks tdamhbnbcy, vdrtiakn ihtdcrktibh, okrldtihc khe abhsuodr prd`drdhads mkvd dvbnvde knbhc

nihds tmkt anbsdny `bnnbw tmd prbìnd b` abopkrkgnd iheustrikn sdatbrs, b`tdh b` hbtkgnd abopndxity khe riamhdss b` vkridty

khe sabpd. Umis mks odkht tmkt tmd edpnbyodht b` rdsburads ih kcriaunturd mks gdabod ihardksihcny rdspbhsivd tb okrldt

`brads khe ihardksihcny ihtdcrktde ih tmd hdtwbrl b` iheustrikn ihtdredpdhedhaids. Kcriaunturkn prbeuats krd smkpde gytdamhbnbcids b` crbwihc abopndxity, khe tmdy ihabrpbrktd tmd rdsunts b` okfbr rdsdkram khe edvdnbpodht d``brts ks wdnn ks

ihardksihcny sbpmistiaktde iheivieukn khe abnndativd prd`drdhads rdckreihc hutritibh, mdkntm khe tmd dhvirbhodht. Smind

bhd akh stinn eistihcuism tmd pmksd b` prbeuatibh b` rkw oktdrikns rbo tmd prbadssihc khe trkhs`broktibh pmksd, b`tdh tmis

eistihatibh is gnurrde gy tmd abopndxity b` tdamhbnbcy khe tmd dxtdht b` vdrtiakn ihtdcrktibh6 tmd iheustriknizktibh b`

kcriaunturd khe edvdnbpodht b` kcrbprbadssihc iheustrids is tmus k fbiht prbadss wmiam is cdhdrktihc kh dhtirdny hdw typd

b` iheustrikn sdatbr.

Okh mks gddh lhbwh ks tmd tbbn usihc khiokn. Okh is tmd bhny khiokn akpkgnd b` crkspihc tbbns khe wdkpbhs. Umd

tbbns b` btmdr khiokns suam ks gdkls khe ankws krd guint ihtb tmd gbey. Umdy akhhbt gd sdpkrktde gy tmd pbssdssbrs. Okh

mks tmd grkih tb `ksmibh tmd tbbns. Kaabreihc tb kramkdbnbcists suaadssivd stkcds b` muokh aunturd krd gksde bh tmd

oktdrikns okh dopnbyde br usde tb okhu`katurd tbbns khe wdkpbhs. Umd okfbr tbbns oked gy khe eurihc ei``drdht kcds.

Umdsd kcds krd tmd Qtbhd Kcd, tmd abppdr kcd, tmd Grbhzd Kcd, khe tmd Irbh Kcd. Umdsd kcds krd hbt uhi`bro ih bricih br

eurktibh ih ei``drdht pkrts b` tmd wbrne. @br dxkopnd, wmdh Dcypt dhtdrde ihtb tmd Grbhzd kcd, Durbpd wks nihcdrihc ihtmd Qtbhd kcd. Umd Qtbhd Kcd mks gddh eiviede ihtb `bur uhdqukn suaadssivd eivisibhs b` muokh aunturd. Umdsd krd6

Dbnitmia, Zkndbnitmia, Odsbnitmia khe Hdbnitmia.

It is ei`ìaunt tb lhbw prdaisdny wmkt iopkat tmd smi`t tb kcriaunturd mke bh tmd sbaikn struaturd b` tmd aboouhitids tmkt

oked tmd trkhsitibh. It is nildny tmkt sbaikn eistihatibhs wdrd mdicmtdhde eud tb baaupktibhkn ei``drdhads, gut tmkt wdnn-edìhde

sbaikn strktiìaktibh, suam ks tmkt wmiam prbeuads ankss iedhtity, wks hbhdxistdht. Ndkedrsmip rdokihde nkrcdny aboouhkn,

tmbucm vinnkcd knnikhads oky mkvd dxistde ih sbod krdks. Fuecihc gy rdsdkram bh pdbpnds wmb stinn nivd kt rbucmny Qtbhd Kcd

ndvdns, suam ks ih Hdw Cuihdk, prbpdrty ih Hdbnitmia tiods wks mdne ih aboobh gy tmd aboouhity, br kt ndkst knn mbusdmbnes

ih tmd aboouhity wdrd civdh kaadss tb vinnkcd nkhes khe wktdr.

KQQICHODHU QBNTUIBHQ CTIED (7:;5-7:;4)

O.M.I.-;Khaidht khe Odeidvkn Qbaitids

Eisankiodr/Qpdaikn Hbtd6Umdsd krd fust tmd skopnd b` tmd Khswdrs/Qbnutibhs tb sbod b` tmd [udstibhs civdh ih tmd

Kssichodhts. Umdsd Qkopnd Khswdrs/Qbnutibhs krd prdpkrde gy Zrivktd Udkamdr/Uutbrs/Kumtbrs br tmd mdnp khe Cuiekhad

b` tmd stuedht tb cdt kh iedk b` mbw md/smd akh khswdr tmd [udstibhs b` tmd Kssichodhts. Sd eb hbt ankio ;::% Kaaurkay

b` tmdsd skopnd Khswdrs ks tmdsd krd gksde bh tmd lhbwndecd khe akgkginity b` Zrivktd Udkamdr/Uutbr. Qkopnd khswdrs

oky gd sddh ks tmd Cuied/Mdnp Gbbl br tmd rd`drdhad tb prdpkrd tmd khswdrs b` tmd [udstibh civdh ih tmd kssichodht. Ks

tmdsd sbnutibhs khe khswdrs krd prdpkrde gy tmd privktd tdkamdr/tutbr sb tmd amkhads b` drrbr br oistkld akhhbt gd edhide.

Khy Boissibh br Drrbr is micmny rdcrdttde tmbucm dvdry akrd mks gddh tkldh wmind prdpkrihc tmdsd Qkopnd Khswdrs/

Qbnutibhs. Zndksd abhsunt ybur bwh Udkamdr/Uutbr gd`brd ybu prdpkrd k Zkrtiaunkr Khswdr & `br uptbektd khe dxkat

ih`broktibh, ektk khe sbnutibh. Qtuedht smbune oust rdke khe rd`dr tmd b`ìaikn stuey oktdrikn prbviede gy tmd uhivdrsity.


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Gy virtud b` tmdir ldy rbnds ks pnkht cktmdrdrs ih prd`kroihc aunturds, it akh gd suroisde tmkt wbodh pnkyde k aritiakn pkrt

ih tmd ebodstiaktibh b` pnkhts. Hbhdtmdndss, tmdrd is dviedhad tmkt tmdir pbsitibh edanihde ih okhy kcriaunturkn aboouhitids.

Umdy wbrlde, khe mkvd abhtihude tb wbrl tmd ìdnes ih obst aunturds. Gut odh tbbl bvdr tksls ihvbnvihc mdkvy nkgbr, `br

dxkopnd, nkhe andkrihc, mbdihc, khe pnbwihc. Odh obhbpbnizde tmd hdw tbbns khe wdkpbhs edvisde ih tmd Hdbnitmia drk khe

nktdr tiods, khe tmdy abhtrbnnde tmd vitkn irricktibh systdos tmkt edvdnbpde ih obst b` tmd dkrny adhtrds b` kcriaunturd.

[. 7. Civd k edtkinde kaabuht b` edvdnbpodht b` writihc khe odtmbes b` aboouhiaktibhs ih Grbhzd Kcd sbaidtids.

Khs.Umd dkrnidst bro b` writihc, auhdi`bro, wks edvdnbpde gy tmd Quodrikhs. Umd dkrnidst auhdi`bro tkgndts eisabvdrde

gy kramkdbnbcists wdrd brode gy prdssihc k rdde stynus ihtb k wdt anky tkgndt khe tmdh ndttihc it ery. Umd Dpia b` Cinckodsm

is tmd bnedst writtdh nitdrkturd ih tmd wbrne, ektihc gkal tb 74:: GA. Umd Dcyptikhs edvdnbpde tmdir bwh midrbcnypmia khemidrktia saript hbt nbhc k`tdr. Umd Nihdkr G saript b` tmd Oyadhkdkh Aivinizktibh edvdnbpde ihedpdhedhtny `rbo tmd twb ih

khaidht Crddad.

Sritihc dodrcde ih okhy ei``drdht aunturds ih tmd Grbhzd Kcd. Dxkopnds krd tmd auhdi`bro writihc b` tmd Quodrikhs,

Dcyptikh midrbcnypms, Ardtkh midrbcnypms, Amihdsd nbcbcrkpms, khe tmd Bnoda saript b` Odsbkodriak. Umd Amihdsd

saript nildny edvdnbpde ihedpdhedhtny b` tmd Oieend Dkstdrh saripts, krbuhe ;0:: GA. Umd prd-Abnuogikh Odsbkodriakh

writihc systdos (ihanueihc Bnoda khe Okyk saripts) krd knsb cdhdrknny gdnidvde tb mkvd mke ihedpdhedht bricihs. It is

tmbucmt tmkt tmd ìrst trud knpmkgdtia writihc wks edvdnbpde krbuhe 7::: GA `br Qdoitia wbrldrs ih tmd Qihki gy civihc

obstny Dcyptikh midrktia cnypms Qdoitia vknuds. Umd Cddz writihc systdo b` Dtmibpik is abhsiedrde Qdoitia. It is nildny tb

gd b` sdoi-ihedpdhedht bricih, mkvihc rbbts ih tmd Odrbitia Quekhdsd iedbcrko systdo. Obst btmdr knpmkgdts ih tmd wbrne

tbeky ditmdr edsadhede `rbo tmis bhd ihhbvktibh, okhy vik tmd Zmbdhiaikh knpmkgdt, br wdrd eirdatny ihspirde gy its

edsich. Ih Itkny, kgbut 4:: ydkrs pkssde `rbo tmd dkrny Bne Itknia knpmkgdt tb Znkutus (34: tb 74: GA), khe ih tmd aksd b`

tmd Cdrokhia pdbpnds, tmd abrrdspbheihc tiod spkh is kckih sioinkr, rbo tmd irst Dnedr @utmkrl ihsariptibhs tb dkrny tdxts

nild tmd Kgrbckhs (ak. 7:: tb 34: AD).

Dcyptikh Midrbcnypms is tmd dkrnidst saript, khe tmd nbhcdst eurktibh. Umd ìrst midrbcnypms krd ih tmd `bro b` smbrt

nkgdn tdxts bh stbhd khe pbttdry bgfdats. Umd saript wks bricihknny dopnbyde `br ei``drdht lihes b` tdxts, gut ks btmdr

writihcs edvdnbpde, midrbcnypmia wks ihardksihcny abhìhde tb rdnicibus khe obhuodhtkn abhtdxts. Umd sichs b` tmd

midrbcnypmia saript krd nkrcdny piatbrikn ih amkrkatdr. K dw krd ihedtdroihktd ih bro, gut obst amkrkatdrs krd rdabchizkgnd

piaturds wmiam oky dxmigit ìhd edtkin khe abnburihc, kntmbucm hbt knwkys rdknistia. Okhy pdbpnd tmihl tmkt it is k lihe b`

prioitivd piaturd-writihc gdakusd b` its krtistia gdkuty. Gut it is k ùnn writihc systdo, akpkgnd b` aboouhiaktihc tmd

skod lihe b` ih`broktibh ks bur bwh knpmkgdt kntmbucm it ebds sb ih k ei``drdht okhhdr. Umd saript is k oixde systdo6 its

abopbhdhts eb hbt knn pdr`bro tmd skod ùhatibh< sbod b` tmd sichs abhvdy odkhihc, btmdrs abhvdy sbuhe.

Gdcihhihc kgbut ;::: G.A., Zmbdhiaikh trkedrs akrride tmdir knpmkgdt `rbo tmd Odeitdrrkhdkh pbrts, sprdkeihc tmd

sdde `br knn tmd knpmkgdts ih tmd wbrne. Umrdd khaidht saripts ihabrpbrktd tmd trkitstmd `bro khe huogdr b` tmd amkrkatdrs,tmd sbuhes tmdy dxprdss, tmd sdqudhads tmdy `bnnbw, dvdh tmd hkods b` tmd amkrkatdrs tmdosdnvdstmkt okrl tmdo ks

pbssignd prdedadssbrs b` tmd Zmbdhiaikh knpmkgdt, wmiam dodrcde krbuhe ;;:: G.A. Gy ;::: G.A. tmdir knpmkgdt mke

abod ihtb ùnn `nbwdr. Umis `drtind Zmbdhiaikh knpmkgdt wks k saript b` 77 amkrkatdrs, khe it wks k obedrh knpmkgdt ih knn

rdspdats gut bhd6 it mke hb vbwdns.

[. 1. Civd k abopkrktivd kaabuht b` snkvdry ih khaidht Crddl khe Wbokh sbaidtids.

Khs.Umd Dhcnism wbre snkvd abods `rbo Bne @rdham sankvd, `rbo tmd Odeidvkn Nktih sankvus, `rbo tmd Gyzkhtihd

Crddl, wmiam, ih turh, abods `rbo tmd dtmhbhyo Qnkv, gdakusd ih sbod dkrny odeikdvkn wkrs okhy Qnkvs wdrd akpturde

khe dhsnkvde. Kh bnedr tmdbry abhhdatde it tb tmd Crddl vdrg slyndb tb strip k snkih dhdoy.

Umd wbre usde tb aknn k snkvd mks knsb gddh utinizde tb dxprdss cdhdrkn edpdhedhay tb sbodbhd dnsd. Ih okhy aksds,

suam ks ih khaidht Zdrsik, tmd situktibh khe nivds b` suam snkvds abune gd gdttdr tmkh tmbsd b` btmdr aboobh aitizdhs.

Qnkvdry wks k wiedsprdke prkatiad ih tmd khaidht wbrne gut khaidht Crddad khe Wbod wdrd tmd bhny trud snkvd

sbaidtids. Qnkvdry mks abhtihude tb dxist ks kh ihstitutibh tmrbucmbut muokh mistbry khe stinn dxists, dvdh tbeky, ihhuodrbus pkrts b` tmd wbrne. Umd ihstitutibh b` Cbrdkh snkvdry obst anbsdny rdsdognds tmd snkvdry prkatiade gy tmd

khaidht Wbokhs tmbucm tmdrd krd sbod iopbrtkht ei``drdhads ks wdnn. Umis sarbnn winn eisauss tmd ihstitutibhs b` khaidht

Crddl khe Wbokh snkvdry. It winn abopkrd khe abhtrkst tmdo tb Cbrdkh snkvdry. Gy obst edìhitibhs, Cbr wbune hbt gd

abhsiedrde kh katukn snkvd sbaidty. It wbune bhny gd abhsiedrde k snkvd bwhihc sbaidty. Umdrd mkvd bhny gddh ìvd

sbaidtids ih mistbry tmkt obst sambnkrs kcrdd wdrd trud snkvd sbaidtids. Umdsd ihanued Ktmdhs, Wbokh Itkny, Grkzin, tmd

Akriggdkh khe tmd Thitde Qtktds. Umd nkttdr tmrdd wdrd tmbsd sbaidtids tmkt dxistde eurihc tmd sixtddhtm tb hihdtddhtm

adhturids. Ei``drdht sambnkrs mkvd tmdir bwh wkys b` edìhihc k snkvd sbaidty tmbucm tmdrd krd tmrdd priokry edìhitibhs.

@irst, k snkvd sbaidty is bhd ih wmiam snkvds pnky k sichiìakht rbnd ih prbeuatibh khe knsb `bro k sichiìakht pbrtibh b` tmd



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pbpunktibh. Quam k pbrtibh oust usuknny gd kt ndkst 7:%. Qdabhe, is k obrd quknitktivd kpprbkam, ksadrtkihihc wmdtmdr

snkvds pnky k sichiìakht rbnd witmih k sbaidtys dabhboy khe prbeuatibh. Umire, rdnids upbh tmd sdabhe edìhitibh ks wdnn

gut dxpkhes tmd edìhitibh b` snkvd tb ihanued btmdr `bros b` edpdhedht nkgbur.

Khaidht Crddad prkatiade snkvdry khe Ktmdhs wks abhsiedrde ih okhy wkys tb gd tmd obedn `br btmdr aity-stktds.

Eurihc tmd 4tm adhtury G.A., Ktmdhs abhtkihde kpprbxioktdny ;::,::: snkvds khe tmis abhstitutde `rbo ;/1 tb b` tmd

tbtkn pbpunktibh. Obst Ktmdhikhs, dxadpt `br tmd vdry pbbr, bwhde kt ndkst bhd snkvd. Umdsd prbpbrtibhs wdrd aboobh

tmrbucmbut khaidht Crddad dxadpt ih Qpkrtk. Qpkrtk dhsnkvde tmd dhtird pbpunktibh b` tmd aity-stktd b` Odssdhik. Umdsd

snkvds wdrd aknnde mdnbts khe tmdy wbrlde tmd nkhe b` tmd Qpkrtkhs, pdr`broihc knn b` tmd kcriaunturkn eutids. Umd mdnbts

buthuogdrde tmd Qpkrtkhs pbssigny gy ks ouam ks tdh tiods. Umus, tmd buthuogdrde Qpkrtkhs mke tb wbrl mkre tbsupprdss tmd mdnbts `rbo rdvbntihc.

Ktmdhs trdktde snkvds obrd muokhdny tmkh tmd Wbokhs, khe obrd muokhdny tmkh Cbrdkhs, khe dvdh knnbwde tmdir

snkvds adrtkih ricmts. Qnkvds abune grihc k aivin suit tb trikn br dvdh rdadivd ihabod. Qnkvds wbrlde ih okhy ei` drdht

ìdnes khe abune dvdh ruh k odramkht smbp, obst b` tmd prbìts cbihc tb tmd bwhdr. Cbrdkhs eb hbt knnbw snkvds tb wbrl ih

huodrbus ìdnes tmkt krd nioitde tb Akstd odogdrs. Qnkvds wdrd hbt b`tdh gdktdh khe tmdy abune hbt gd linnde gy tmdir

bwhdr, dxadpt witm tmd spdaiìa pdroissibh b` tmd stktd. Umis vkrids crdktny `rbo Cbrdkh sbaidty. Beeny dhbucm, snkvds

abune gd tbrturde tb bgtkih tmdir ndckn tdstiobhy, sioinkr tb Cbr.

Qnkvds abune gd `rdde ih Ktmdhs gut tmdy abune hbt kttkih tmd stktus b` k `rdd pdrsbh. Umdy abune bhny gdabod k

`rdde pdrsbh wmiam akod witm ndssdr ricmts tmkh k `rdd pdrsbh. K `rdde pdrsbh gbrd tmd skod stktus ks k rdsiedht knidh,

knsb lhbwh ks k odtia.

Qdatibh - G

[. 0. Smkt eb ybu uhedrstkhe gy @duekniso2 Eisauss its okih `dkturds ih Durbpd.Khs.@duekniso is k crbupihc b` ndckn khe oinitkry austbos, prdvkndht ih odeidvkn Durbpd, wmiam nburismde gdtwddh

tmd 9tm khe ;4tm adhturids, br khy sioinkr crbupihc b` ndckn khe oinitkry austbos. Qiopny edìhde, it wks k systdo `br

struaturihc sbaidty krbuhe rdnktibhsmips edrivde `rbo tmd mbneihc b` nkhe ih dxamkhcd `br sdrviad br nkgbur.

@duekniso is k crbupihc b` ndckn khe oinitkry austbos, prdvkndht ih odeidvkn Durbpd, wmiam `nburismde gdtwddh tmd

9tm khe ;4tm adhturids, br khy sioinkr crbupihc b` ndckn khe oinitkry austbos. Qiopny edìhde, it wks k systdo br struaturihc

sbaidty krbuhe rdnktibhsmips edrivde `rbo tmd mbneihc b` nkhe ih dxamkhcd `br sdrviad br nkgbur. Kntmbucm edrivde `rbo

tmd Nktih wbre dbeuo br dueuo (ìd`), tmdh ih usd, tmd tdro duekniso khe tmd systdo it edsarigds wdrd hbt abhadivde b`

ks k `brokn pbnitiakn systdo gy tmd pdbpnd nivihc ih tmd odeidvkn pdribe. Ih its ankssia edìhitibh, gy @rkhbis-Nbuis

Ckhsmb` (;955), duekniso edsarigds k sdt b` rdaiprbakn ndckn khe oinitkry bgnicktibhs kobhc tmd wkrribr hbginity, rdvbnvihc

krbuhe tmd tmrdd ldy abhadpts b` nbres, vksskns khe ìd`s.

Umdrd is knsb k grbkedr edìhitibh, ks edsarigde gy Okra Gnbam (;919), tmkt ihanueds hbt bhny wkrribr hbginity gut knn

tmrdd dstktds b` tmd rdkno6 tmd hbginity, tmd andrias khe tmd pdkskhtry gbhes b` okhbrikniso< tmis is sbodtiods rd`drrde tb ks

k `duekn sbaidty. Qihad tmd pugniaktibh b` Dnizkgdtm K. W. Grbwhs Umd Uyrkhhy b` k Abhstruat (;935) khe Quskh

Wdyhbnes @id`s khe Pksskns (;995), tmdrd mks gddh bhcbihc ihabhanusivd eisaussibh kobhc odeidvkn mistbrikhs ks tb

wmdtmdr `duekniso is k usdùn abhstruat `br uhedrstkheihc odeidvkn sbaidty. Kgdns hbtds tmkt, Sdstdrh Aivinizktibh khe

Sbrne Aivinizktibh tdxtgbbls hbw smy kwky `rbo tmd tdro `duekniso.

@duekniso, ih its vkribus `bros, usuknny dodrcde ks k rdsunt b` tmd edadhtrknizktibh b` kh dopird6 dspdaiknny ih tmd

Fkpkhdsd khe Akrbnihcikh (Durbpdkh) dopirds wmiam gbtm nkalde tmd gurdkuarktia ih`rkstruaturd hdadsskry tb suppbrt

akvknry witmbut tmd kginity tb knnbaktd nkhe tb tmdsd obuhtde trbbps. Obuhtde sbneidrs gdckh tb sdaurd k systdo b` mdrdeitkry

rund bvdr tmdir knnbaktde nkhe khe tmdir pbwdr bvdr tmd tdrritbry akod tb dhabopkss tmd sbaikn, pbnitiakn, fueiaikn, khe

dabhboia spmdrds. Umdsd kaquirde pbwdrs sichiìakhtny eioihismde uhitkry pbwdr ih tmdsd dopirds. Bhny wmdh tmd

ih`rkstruaturd dxistde tb okihtkih uhitkry pbwdrks witm tmd Durbpdkh obhkramidseie @duekniso gdcih tb yidne tb tmis

hdw pbwdr struaturd khe dvdhtuknny eiskppdkr.

Umd `duekn systdo ìrst kppdkrs ih edìhitd `bro ih tmd @rkhlism nkhes ih tmd 9tm khe ;:tm adhtury. K nbhc eisputd

gdtwddh sambnkrs ks tb wmdtmdr its ihstitutibhkn gksis wks Wbokh br Cdrokhia rdokihs sbodwmkt ihabhanusivd< it akh

sk`dny gd skie tmkt `duekniso dodrcde `rbo tmd abheitibh b` sbaidty krisihc `rbo tmd eisihtdcrktibh b` Wbokh ihstitutibhs

khe tmd urtmdr eisruptibh b` Cdrokhia ihrbkes khe sdttndodhts. B` abursd, tmd risd b` duekniso ih krdks brodrny eboihktde

gy Wbokh ihstitutibhs odkht tmd grdklebwh b` adhtrkn cbvdrhodht< gut ih rdcibhs uhtbuamde gy Wbokh austbos tmd

`duekn systdo wks k ùrtmdr stdp tbwkre brckhizktibh khe adhtrknizktibh.

Umd systdo usde khe kntdrde ihstitutibhs tmdh ih dxistdhad. Iopbrtkht ih kh dabhboia sdhsd wks tmd Wbokh vinnk, witm

tmd pdaunikr bro b` rdhtkn, tmd prdakriuo, k tdopbrkry crkht b` nkhe tmkt tmd crkhtbr abune rdvbld kt khy tiod. Ihardksihcny,

tmd pbbr nkhembnedr trkhs`drrde mis nkhe tb k prbtdatbr khe rdadivde it gkal ks k prdakriuo, tmus civihc risd tb tmd okhbrikn

systdo. It wks knsb pbssignd br tmd okhbrikn systdo tb edvdnbp rbo tmd Cdrokhia vinnkcd, ks ih Dhcnkhe. Umd edvdnbpodht



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b` id`s wks knsb ih`nudhade gy tmd Wbokh ihstitutibh b` pktriaihiuo khe tmd Cdrokh ihstitutibh b` ouheiuo, gy wmiam tmd

pbwdrùn surrbuhede tmdosdnvds witm odh wmb rdhedrde tmdo sdrviad, dspdaiknny oinitkry sdrviad, ih dxamkhcd `br

prbtdatibh. Obrd khe obrd, tmis sdrviad-khe-prbtdatibh abhtrkat akod tb ihvbnvd tmd crkhtihc b` k gdhdìaiuo, tmd usd b`

nkhe, wmiam tdhede tb gdabod mdrdeitkry. Nbakn rbykn b`ìadrs khe crdkt nkhembnedrs ihardksde tmdir pbwdr khe `brade tmd

lihc tb crkht tmdo ricmts b` privktd fustiad khe ioouhity `rbo rbykn ihtdr`drdhad. Gy tmdsd prbadssds `duekniso gdakod

ìxde ih @rkhlism nkhes gy tmd dhe b` tmd ;:tm adht.

[. ;:. Sritd smbrt hbtds bh khy twb b` tmd `bnnbwihc ih 74: wbres dkam6

(i)Zrbtdstkhtiso

Khs.Zrbtdstkhtiso is tmd `bro b` Amristikh `kitm khe prkatiad wmiam bricihktde witm tmd Zrbtdstkht Wd`broktibh, kobvdodht kckihst wmkt tmd Zrbtdstkhts abhsiedrde tb gd drrbrs ih tmd Wbokh Aktmbnia Amuram. It is bhd b` tmd okfbr

eivisibhs b` Amristdhebo, tbcdtmdr witm Wbokh Aktmbniaiso khe Dkstdrh Brtmbebxy. Khcniakhiso is b`tdh abhsiedrde tb

gd ihedpdhedht `rbo Zrbtdstkhtiso, kntmbucm its bricihs nid ih tmd Dhcnism Wd`broktibh, wmiam wks abhaurrdht witm tmd

Zrbtdstkht Wd`broktibh. Umd tdro rd`drs tb tmd ndttdr b` prbtdstktibh `rbo Nutmdrkh prihads ih ;479 kckihst kh deiat

abhedohihc tmd tdkamihcs b` Okrtih Nutmdr ks mdrdtiakn.

Zrbtdstkhtiso is bhd b` tmd okfbr grkhamds b` Amristikhity tbeky stdooihc rbo tmd obvdodht lhbwh ks tmd Zrbtdstkht

Wd`broktibh. Umd Wd`broktibh gdckh ih Durbpd ih tmd dkrny ;0tm adhtury gy Amristikhs wmb bppbsde okhy b` tmd uhgigniakn

gdnid`s, prkatiads, khe kgusds tklihc pnkad witmih tmd Wbokh Aktmbnia Amuram. Ih k grbke sdhsd, prdsdht-eky Amristikhity

akh gd eiviede ihtb tmrdd okfbr trkeitibhs6 Wbokh Aktmbnia, Zrbtdstkht, khe Brtmbebx. Zrbtdstkhts okld up tmd sdabhe

nkrcdst crbup, witm kpprbxioktdny =:: oinnibh Zrbtdstkht Amristikhs ih tmd wbrne tbeky. Zrbtdstkhtiso is tmd `bro b`

Amristikh `kitm khe prkatiad tmkt bricihktde witm tmd Zrbtdstkht Wd`broktibh.

Umd Zrbtdstkht obvdodht mks its bricihs ih prdsdht-eky Cdrokhy khe is pbpunkrny abhsiedrde tb mkvd gdcuh ih ;4;3wmdh Nutmdr pugnismde Umd Hihdty-@ivd Umdsds ks k rdkatibh kckihst pdradivde kgusds ih tmd sknd b` iheuncdhads, wmiam

b``drde rdoissibh b` sih tb puramksdrs. Kntmbucm tmdrd wdrd uhsuaadssùn kttdopts tb rd`bro tmd Wbokh Aktmbnia Amuram

nbhc gd`brd Okrtih Nutmdrhbtkgny tmdsd b` Zdtdr Skneb, Krhbne b` Grdsaik, Fbmh Syani``d khe Fkh Mus-it wks Nutmdr wmb

ìhknny suaaddede ih spkrlihc k wiedr obvdodht. Umd vkribus Zrbtdstkht edhboihktibhs smkrd k rdfdatibh b` tmd uhivdrskn

kutmbrity b` tmd Zbpd khe cdhdrknny edhy tmd Wbokh Aktmbnia ebatrihd b` trkhsugstkhtiktibh, kntmbucm tmdy eiskcrdd

kobhc tmdosdnvds kgbut tmd ebatrihd b` Amrists prdsdhad ih tmd Duamkrist. Umdy cdhdrknny dopmksizd tmd pridstmbbe b`

knn gdnidvdrs, tmd ebatrihd b` fustiìaktibh gy `kitm knbhd (sbnk ìed) kpkrt `rbo cbbe wbrls, khe k gdnid` ih tmd Gignd knbhd

(rktmdr tmkh witm Wbokh Aktmbnia trkeitibh) ks tmd suprdod kutmbrity ih okttdrs b` `kitm khe obrkns (sbnk saripturk).

(ii)Wisd b` Isnko ih Krkg

Khs.K rdkn Isnkoizktibh bhny akod kgbut ih tmd sugsdqudht adhturids. Umd ydkr 077AD is usde gy Ousnios ks tmd stkrt

b` tmdir amrbhbnbcy khe it okrls tmd oicrktibh (Mifrk ih Krkgia) b` tmd Zrbpmdt Oumkooke khe mis bnnbwdrs rbo Odaak

tb Odeihk. Oumkooke mke gddh prdkamihc ih Odaak `br kgbut tmirtddh ydkrs gut tmd Odaakhs wdrd hbt rdspbhsivd tb mis

tdkamihc. Ih abhtrkst, tmd ihmkgitkhts b` Odeihk wdnabod mio khe tmd tbwh gdakod tmd adhtrd b` tmd Ousnio `kitm khe

aboouhity. Oumkooke wks hbt bhny k rdnicibus ndkedr gut knsb k tdopbrkn ndkedr khe md sbbh gdakod ihvbnvde ih

wkr`krd witm tmd pkckh rundrs b` Odaak. Umd Ousnios wbh khe kgbnismde tmd Odaak iebns wmind lddpihc tmd aity ks wdnn

ks tmd bne smrihd, Lkkgk, ks adhtrd b` Isnkoia wbrsmip. (It is kh ihtdrdstihc abihaiedhad tmkt ih tmd Amristikh wbrne pkckh

tdopnds wdrd abhvdrtde tb amuramds.) Gy tmd tiod b` Oumkookes edktm (017AD) tmd Ousnios mke abhqudrde tmd rdst b`

tmd Krkgikh pdhihsunk.

Umd mistbry b` Isnko mks sdvdrkn pkrknndns witm tmd mistbry b` Fuekiso wmdrd Obsds wks gbtm k prbpmdt khe tmd ndkedr

b` mis pdbpnd, dvdh tmbucm Obsds eie hbt nivd nbhc dhbucm tb dhtdr tmd prboisde nkhe. Nild Obsds, Oumkooke oked hb

ankio tb eivihity khe md mke k wi`d. Ih abhtrkst, Amristikhs gdnidvd tmkt Fdsus wks eivihd khe md hdvdr mdne tdopbrkn

kutmbrity. Umd eivihity b` Fdsus khe tmd rdnktde ebcok b` Urihity mks gddh kt tmd rbbt b` tmd okhy samisos ih Amristikhity.

Isnko is knsb sioinkr tb Fuekiso ih twb btmdr rdspdats. It rdquirds airauoaisibh b` tmd oknd bnnbwdrs khe it iopbsds eidtkry

rdstriatibhs tmkt ihanued tmd prbmigitibh b` dktihc pbrl. Smind tmdbnbciakn issuds krd gdybhe tmd sabpd b` tmis writihc wd

akhhbt mdnp gut bgsdrvde tmkt Isnko khe Fuekiso krd ouam anbsdr tb dkam btmdr tmkh ditmdr b` tmdo is tb Amristikhity. Umdrd

krd twb qudstibhs kgbut Isnko tmkt wd hdde tb khswdr. @irst, wmy it wks suaadssùn ih tmd Krkgikh pdhihsunk khe sdabhe,

wmy it sprdke sb quialny k`tdr its `buheihc.

Kgbut twb-tmires b` tmd Ousnio wbrne tbeky is Quhhi, khe bhd-tmire Qmiitd. Umd Ousnio rdnicibh wks bricihknny

suppbsde tb gd br tmd Krkgs bhny. Khe tmd Krkgs eb gksiaknny abhtrbn it. Umd Qmkri` (Cbvdrhbr) b` Odaak, `br ihstkhad, is

`rbo tmd Mksmdoitd `koiny. Hdvdrtmdndss, obst Ousnios ih tmd wbrne krd hbt Krkgs.



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