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U. 5. Nmsguss hekor trldns md gofodmef jmstormoarepjy. Srovmnl Herxmst mdtlrprltetmod o` tjl gofodmef vmlw-

pomdt.

Eds.^jl gofodmef jmstormoarepjy o` Mdnme wes iesln od tjl prl-godglptmods edn nlietls eiout tjl ormldt md tjl tjld

Luropled sogmlty. ^jms rlsuftln md tjl grletmod o` tjl stlrlotypl o` tjl Mdnmed sogmlty wjmgj wes tjl otjlr to tjl

Luropled sogmlty.

^jl tlrh gofodmef jmstormoarepjy eppfmls to (e)tjl jmstormls o` tjl goudtrmls gofodmsln nurmda tjlmr plrmon o` gofo-

dmef rufl, edn (i) to tjl mnles edn epproegjls gohhodfy essogmetln wmtj jmstormeds wjo wlrl or erl gjeregtlrmsln iy e

gofodmefmst mnlofoay. Md Irmtmsj Mdnme tjl tlrh wes usln md tjl mrst sldsl edn odfy smdgl mdnlpldnldgl tjl slgodn hledmda

o` tjl tlrh jes gohl mdto prohmdldgl. Md e sldsl gofodmef jmstory es e suiklgt o` stuny edn gofodmef epproegj es ed

mnlofoay erl mdtlrgoddlgtln. jl tjlhl o` lhpmrl iumfnmda md tjl jmstormgef worbs o` tjl Irmtmsj detureffy aevl rmsl to e slt

o` mnles kustm`ymda Irmtmsj rufl md Mdnme. jms kustm`mgetmod mdgfunln, md nm``lrldt nlarlls md nm``lrldt mdnmvmnuef jmstormed, e

jmajfy grmtmgef ettmtunl towerns Mdnmed sogmlty edn gufturl et tmhls ehoudtmda to godtlhpt, e feunetory ettmtunl to tjl

sofnmlrs edn enhmdmstretors wjo godqulrln edn rufln Mdnme, edn e prodldlss to feun tjl ildl`mts Mdnme rlglmvln `roh SexIrmteddmge, m.l. Irmtmsj Slegl. Ql sjeff stuny tjms mnlofoay md nltemf fetlr iut mt ms mhportedt to dotl jlrl tjet fegb o`

godsgmousdlss o` tjl mnlofoamgef nmhldsmod wes e gjeregtlrmstmg o` gofodmef jmstory wrmtmda. jl md`fuldgl o` Flopofn vod

Yedbl edn tjl posmtmvmst sgjoof o` jmstory jen, or tjl hekor pert o` tjl dmdltlldtj edn twldtmltj gldturmls, grletln e ilfml`

md tjl oiklgtmvmty o` tjl jmstormed edn tjms henl mt nm``mguft to plrglmvl tjl possmimfmty o` mnlofoamgef fledmdas md jmstorm-

eds nmsgoursl. jl mnlofoamgef nmhldsmod o` gofodmef jmstormoarepjy wes irouajt to tjl sur`egl odfy md tjl post-mdnlpld-

nldgl grmtmqul o` lerfmlr jmstormoarepjy. jms grmtmqul wes feudgjln hemdfy md Mdnme wjmfl, es fetl es 5=05, G J Sjmfmps o`

tjl Wgjoof o` Ormldtef edn E`rmged Wtunmls o` Fodnod, md ^jl Jmstormeds o` Mdnme, Sebmsted edn Glyfod, nmn dot remsl tjl

mssul et eff md e gohprljldsmvl survly o` jmstormoarepjy.

Jmstormoarepjy to tjl hmn-5=tj gldtury (to tjl rmsl o` Herxmst jmstormoarepjy). Md edgmldt tmhls, lvld il`orl tjl

eppleredgl o` wrmtmda, jmstormgef godglpts edn sohl lflhldts o` jmstormgef bdowflnal lxmstln ehoda eff plopfls md oreffy

tredshmttln tefls edn flaldns edn md tjl aldlefoamls o` edglstors. jl ormamd o` gfessls edn o` tjl stetl mdgrlesln tjl dlln

`or jmstormgef bdowflnal, edn tjl lhlraldgl o` wrmtmda plrhmttln tjl ilamddmda o` tjl egguhufetmod o` sugj bdowflnal.Md lerfy gfess sogmltmls sohl godnmtmods or tjl nlvlfophldt o` jmstormgef goadmtmod ilaed to ermsl, mdgfunmda tjl lfeiore-

tmod o` vermous systlhs o` gjrodofoay. jl mrst jmstormgef rlgorns epplerln et tjms tmhl, sugj es tjl jmstormgef mdsgrmptmods

fl`t iy bmdas edn pjereojs edn ylerfy rlgorns o` lvldts. Ylfmamod lxlrtln ed ldorhous md`fuldgl od tjl nlsgrmptmod edn

mdtlrprltetmod o` jmstormgef lvldts, eff o` wjmgj wlrl lxpfemdln es tjl wmff o` tjl aons. Wugj jmstormgef godglpts wlrl

godsofmnetln md segrln ioobs, sugj es tjl Imifl.

Gfessmgef jmstormoarepjy rlprlsldtln ed mhportedt steal md tjl proarlssmvl nlvlfophldt o` jmstormgef goadmtmod, mdn-

mda mts suprlhl lxprlssmod md tjl worbs o` tjl edgmldt Arllb jmstormeds Jlronotus (geffln tjl `etjlr o` jmstory) edn,

lsplgmeffy, ju-gynmnls. jl fettlr rlklgtln es ed lxpfedetmod o` jmstory tjl mdtlrvldtmod o` nmvmdl orgls, proiln tjl mddlr

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geusls edn godslquldgls o` lvldts, edn ettlhptln to slperetl `egts `roh mdvldtmod. ^jl worbs o` tjlsl jmstormeds erl do

fodalr `reahldtery eggoudts, iut gojlrldt fmtlrery derretmvls nlefmda hemdfy wmtj pofmtmgef jmstory-tjl jmstory o` tjl

Arlgo-Slrsmed Qers edn o` tjl Slfopoddlsmed Qer.

U. 7. Qjet wes tjl gohposmtmod o` ruref hessls ldaealn md tjl earmgufturef pronugtmod md post-Aupte dortj

Mdnme?

Eds. o tjl detmodefmsts, tjl Aupte plrmon surpessln eff otjlr plrmons md edgmldt Mdnmed jmstory md mts egjmlvlhldts md

pofmtmgef udmty, lgodohmg prosplrmty, ert, ergjmtlgturl edn fmtlreturl. Md tjl post-mdnlpldnldgl lre, tjl Herxmst jmstormeds

md e grmtmqul o` tjl detmodefmst jmstormoarepjy postufetln tjl tjlory o` 'Mdnmed @lunefmsh' roh tjl Aupte plrmon odwerns.

^jl Herxmst jmstormeds Y.W. Aupte, I.D.W. ]eneve, N.D. Kje ltg. propoudnln tjet tjl Auptes ilaed wmtj tjl rlauferpregtmgl o` fednaredts to irejhedes wmtj `msgef prmvmflals edn tjl post-Aupte ruflrs aevl ewey enhmdmstretmvl edn

kunmgmef rmajts efoda wmtj `msgef rmajts mdmtmeffy to irejhedes tlhpfls edn od to o``mgmefs edn lvld to hlrgjedts. Jldgl,

tjl Auptes edn tjlmr sugglssors mdgfunmda Jersje plrpltuetln e `lunef pofmtmgef strugturl md wjmgj fednln mdtlrhlnmermls

rufln ruref sogmlty edn pofmtmgeffy `reahldtln edn nlgldtrefmzln Mdnme. Fednaredts irouajt `lunef, pregtmgls md lgodohy

es trenl edn uriedmzetmod nlgfmdln md tjl post-Aupte plrmon edn lxpfomtln plesedtry wmtj mdgrlesmda iurnld o` texls.

Oidoxmous pregtmgls fmbl edtrmgmsh herbln tjl gufturef edn rlfmamous esplgts o` Mdnmed lunefmsh. Es e grmtmqul o` 'Mdnmed

@lunefmsh', I.N. Gjettopenjyeye edn Jlrhedd Bufbl `orwernln tjl proglssuefmst honlf/mdtlaretmvl honlf o` stetl

`orhetmod or tjl stuny o` tjl post-Aupte Mdnme or lerfy hlnmlvef Mdnme. Gjettopenyeye edn Bufbl erauln tjet fednaredts

to irejhedes edn tlhpfls, mdstlen o` nlgldtrefmzetmod o` tjl pofmtmgef eutjormty o` imaalr edn shefflr stetls, flamtmhmzln

tjl lxlrgmsl o` royef eutjormty md tjl goudtrysmnl edn jldgl, mdtlaretln tjl tlrrmtormef udmts edn gjml`s mdto tjl lhlramda

fogef, sui-rlamodef edn rlamodef stetls.

Ijemreim Sresen Weju md jms prlsmnldtmef ennrlss to tjl edgmldt Mdnmed slgtmod o` tjl Mdnmed Jmstory Godarlss rl`lrs to

tjl mdtlaretmvl/proglssuef honlf o` stunymda stetls md tjl Aupte edn post-Aupte plrmons. Dednmdm Wmdje Bepur jes

nlhodstretln tjl mdtlaretmvl `orgls md tjl `orhetmod o` two dler godtlhporery stetls to tjl Auptes, tjl Pebetebe stetl md

Pmnerije edn tjl Hemtrebe md Aukeret. Mdstlen o` nmsmdtlaretmod, tjl mdtlaretmvl honlf jmajfmajts mdtlaretmvl `orgls md

edgmldt Mdnmed jmstory.

Md tjl neys wjld jmstormeds o` 'Aofnld Eals', tjl Aupte plrmon wes nlsgrmiln es sugj, gmvmfmzetmods wlrl semn to jevl

e Aofnld Eal wjld vmrtueffy lvlry hedm`lstetmod o` fm`l rlegjln e pleb o` lxglffldgl. ^jl Aupte plrmon wes slflgtln

feralfy ilgeusl o` mhprlssmvl fmtlrery worbs md Wedsbrmt edn tjl jmaj quefmty o` ert, wjmgj gomdgmnln wmtj wjet wes

vmlwln es e irejhedmgef 'rldemssedgl'. Wmdgl Mdnme gmvmfmzetmod jen lerfy illd gjeregtlrmzln es Jmdnu edn Wedsbrmtmg, tjl

mdmtmef sprlen o` irejhedmgef gufturl es 'jmaj' gufturl od ed udprlglnldtln sgefl wes nlsgrmiln es aofnld plrmon.

^jl nmstedt pest jen ed envedteal, `or mt effowln arletlr rlgoursl to mheamdetmod md rlgrletmda tjet pest. Dow tjet

jmstormeds erl gohhldtmda od eff esplgts o` sogmlty, tjl dotmod o` e udm`orhfy Aofnld Eal tjet ldgohpessls ed ldtmrlsogmlty jes illd qulstmodln. ^jl nlsgrmptmod o` e Aofnld Eal rl`flgtln tjl fm l o` tjl wleftjy edn tjlmr egtmvmtmls efoda

gjeregtlrmzln sugj ed eal. ^jlrl erl et flest tjrll lpogjs wjld ertmstmg edn fmtlrery lxprlssmod egjmlvln mhprlssmvl

stednerns - tjl post-Heuryed edn Aupte plrmon2 tjl Gjofes2 edn tjl Huajefs. ^jl prlgursor to tjl gufturl o` tjl Aupte

plrmon wes dot rlstrmgtln to dortjlrd Mdnme, smdgl tjl Nlgged sjows e strmbmda lvofutmod o` gufturls.

^jl gfessmgmsh o` tjl Aupte plrmon ms dot ed mddovetmod lhedetmda `roh Aupte rufl iut tjl gufhmdetmod o` e proglss

tjet ilaed lefmlr. Dlw ertmstmg `orhs wlrl mdmtmetln nurmda tjl prl-Aupte md dortj Mdnme, sugj es tjosl essogmetln wmtj

Iunnjmsh edn wjmgj efso `oudn perefflfs md otjlr rlfmamous slgts, wmtj tjl wrmtmda o` tlxts od tlgjdmgef suiklgts edn

grletmvl fmtlreturl o` vermous bmdns. Hugj o` tjl ertmgufetmod ms md Wedsbrmt, iut mt ms o` Wedsbrmtmg gufturl essuhls glrtemd

bmdns o` sogmef edn gufturef lxgfusmvlfy edn nlhergetls sogmef aroups mt ettlhpts e tredsmtmod towerns e udm`orh, lfmtl

gufturl, iut md tjl proglss ilgohls e getefyst or hedy otjlrs. jl nlsgrmptmod o` tjl Aupte plrmon es odl o` gfessmgmsh ms

rlfetmvlfy gorrlgt rlaernmda tjl upplr gfessls, wjo fmvln wlff eggornmda to nlsgrmptmods md tjlmr fmtlreturl edn rlprlsldte-

tmods md tjlmr ert. ^jl horl egguretl, fmtlref lvmnldgl tjet gohls `roh ergjelofoay suaalsts e flss afowmda fm`l-styfl `ortjl hekormty. Hetlrmeffy, lxgevetln smtls suaalst tjet tjl evlreal stednern o` fmvmda hey jevl illd jmajlr md tjl prlglnmda

plrmon.

U. >. Wtetl tjl mhportedgl o` pestoref edn `orlst pronugts md tjl hlnmlvef lgodohy.

Eds.Sestoref dohenmsh ms e fmvlfmjoon `orh tjet ms lgofoamgeffy enkustln et e pertmgufer flvlf to tjl utmfmzetmod o`

heramdef rlsourgls. ^jlsl rlsourgls oggur md erles too nry, too lflvetln, or too stllp `or earmgufturl to il e vmeifl honl

o` fmvlfmjoon, edn tjl dohenmg pestorefmst tjus hebls usl o` rlsourgls tjet otjlrwmsl woufn il dlaflgtln. ^jl gjml`

lgodohmg pronugt o` `orlsts ms tmhilr, iut tjl lgodohmg ildl`mts, md tlrhs o` gfmhetl godtrof, poffutmod eietlhldt, edn

wmfnfm`l hemdtldedgl, jevl rerlfy illd gefgufetln. ^jl lgodohmg mhportedgl o` dod tmhilr `orlst pronugts ms efso md-

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grlesmda. jl orlst ms efso vmtef es e wetlrsjln. Ilgeusl o` tjl tjmgb juhus feylr, foosl somf, edn somf-rltemdmda powlrs o`

tjl trlls' foda roots, `orlsts erl vmteffy mhportedt or prlslrvmda enlquetl wetlr suppfmls. Efhost eff wetlr uftmhetlfy llns

`roh @orlst Ymvlrs edn febls edn `roh `orlst-nlrmvln wetlr teifls. Md ennmtmod, tjl `orlst provmnls sjlftlr `or wmfnfm`l,

rlgrletmod edn elstjltmg rldlwef `or plopfl, edn mrrlpfegleifl suppfmls o` oxyald edn somf dutrmldts. Nl`orlstetmod, per-

tmguferfy md tjl tropmgef remd `orlsts, jes ilgohl e hekor ldvmrodhldtef godglrd, es mt ged nlsteimfmzl tjl lertj's tlhplre-

turl, juhmnmty, edn geriod nmoxmnl flvlfs.

DOHENMWH, e wey o` fm`l edn juhed lxmstldgl tjet ms goddlgtln wmtj plrhedldt edn horl or flss rlaufer hovl-

hldts o` plopfl iltwlld nm``lrldt fogetmods. ^jl hmaretmodef hovlhldts o` dohens erl goddlgtln wmtj gflerfy nl`mdln

routls edn nlstmdetmods wjlrl tjl dohens spldn lqueffy gflerfy nl`mdln plrmons o` tmhl wmtj tjl uftmhetl aoef o` pursumdalgodohmg egtmvmtmls edn ldsurmda tjlmr fmvlfmjoon. ^jrll `orhs o` dohenmsh ged il nmstmdaumsjln; dohenmg judtlrs edn

aetjlrlrs, pestoref dohens, edn dod-slnldtery plopfl wjosl lgodohmg egtmvmtmls `ogus od tmdblrmda edn trenmda.

Wlgtmod - I

U. :. Qjet wes tjl mhpegt o` gofodmef mdtlrvldtmods od trmief lgodohy?

Eds. rmief plopfls godstmtutl rouajfy : plrgldt o` tjl detmods totef popufetmod, dlerfy 0: hmffmod plopfl eggornmda

to tjl 5==5 gldsus. Odl godgldtretmod fmvls md e ilft efoda tjl Jmhefeyes strltgjmda tjrouaj Kehhu edn Besjhmr,

Jmhegjef Srenlsj, edn \tter Srenlsj md tjl wlst, to Esseh, Hlajefeye, rmpure, Erudegjef Srenlsj, Hmzoreh, Hedmpur,

edn Deaefedn md tjl dortjlest (sll `ma. 5). Edotjlr godgldtretmod fmvls md tjl jmffy erles o` gldtref Mdnme (Henjye Srenlsj,

Ormsse, edn, to e flsslr lxtldt, Ednjre Srenlsj)2 md tjms ilft, wjmgj ms ioudnln iy tjl Derhene Ymvlr to tjl dortj edn tjl

Aoneverm Ymvlr to tjl soutjlest, trmief plopfls oggupy tjl sfopls o` tjl rlamods houdtemds. Otjlr trmiefs, tjl Wedtefs, fmvl

md Imjer edn Qlst Ildaef. ^jlrl erl shefflr duhilrs o` trmief plopfl md Berdetebe, ^ehmf Denu, edn Blrefe, md wlstlrd

Mdnme md Aukeret edn Yekestjed, edn md tjl udmod tlrrmtormls o` Febsjenwllp edn tjl Ednehed edn Dmgoier Msfedns. Mdnme

wes e nmrlgt gofody o` tjl Irmtmsj edn tjl mhpegt o` tjms gofodmef rufl ovlr tjl lgodohy edn sogmlty o` Mdnme jes illd

mhhldsl. Mt hust il stetln et tjl outslt tjet nmrlgt gofodmef rufl flevls e totef mhpegt od tjl gofodmzln sogmlty ilgeusl

lvlry esplgt o` sogmef fm`l ms md`fuldgln iy gofodmef pofmgmls o` tjl gofodmzlrs. E nmrlgt gofody (es wes tjl gesl wmtj Mdnme)

ms udnlr tjl gohpfltl godtrof o` tjl gofodmzlrs edn gofodmef pofmgmls edn mdtlrlsts md`fuldgl lvlry esplgt o` sogmef fm`l o`

e gofody. Edotjlr mhportedt `egt eiout Mdnme ms tjet tjl gofodmef rufl festln `or e vlry foda tmhl edn tjms fodalvmty o`

gofodmef rufl ovlr Mdnme e``lgtln tjl vmtefs o` tjl Mdnmed sogmlty.

Mdnme md tjl prl-gofodmef plrmon jen e steifl lgodohy. Wlf`-su``mgmldt earmgufturl, fourmsjmda trenl edn rmgj jednmgre`t

mdnustrmls. Wuismstldgl erhlrs, oraedmzln md sheff vmffeal gohhudmtmls gerrmln od earmgufturef oplretmods md Mdnme. Fedn-

forns wlrl dot fednowdlrs2 tjly odfy jen tjl rmajt or prmvmflal to gofflgt texls roh tjl plesedts (Yotjlrhudn, peal 5).

E vmffeal wes horl or flss e slf`-su``mgmldt lgodohmg udmt edn mts iusmdlss godtegts wmtj tjl outsmnl worfn wlrl fmhmtln to

peyhldt o` fedn rlvldul (aldlreffy md bmdn) edn tjl purgjesl o` e `lw dlglssery tjmdas roh tjl towd dleriy. jl erhlrremsln odfy tjosl grops, wjmgj jl dllnln `or jms owd usl edn sjerln tjl sehl wmtj tjl vmffeal ertmsed wjo suppfmln jmh

wmtj smhpfl hedu`egturls tjet jl dllnln `or jms nohlstmg godsuhptmod. Hleds o` gohhudmgetmod wlrl o` e prmhmtmvl

typl. ^jlrl`orl, trenl md earmgufturef pronugl, wes sohlwjet fmhmtln. ^jl `erhlr usueffy remsln ldouaj pronugl to `lln

jmhslf` edn tjl dod-earmgufturef hlhilrs o` tjl vmffeal gohhudmty.

^jl Irmtmsj godqulst o` Hefeier gjedaln tjl smtuetmod iy strldatjldmda mts godtrof ovlr tjl wjofl erle edn tmajtldmda

mts armp es egldtref mhplrmefmstmg powlr lxtldnmda to lvlry esplgt o` plopfls fm`l edn egtmvmty. ^jl Irmtmsj gehl mdto

godtegt wmtj tjl trmils md Hefeier nurmda tjlmr l``orts `or tjl godsofmnetmod o` tjl Lhpmrl. Md tjl ilamddmda tjl gofodmef

Aovlrdhldt nmn dot wedt to ao mdto tjl roots o` trmief proiflhs es tjly jevl do mdtlrlst md tjlmr nlvlfophldt. Mt nmn dot

lvofvl e godsmstldt pofmgy `or trmief nlvlfophldt nurmda tjl 5= tj gldtury, iut md tjl 93tj gldtury, e fmttflettldtmod wes

pemn odfy to tjl wlf`erl o` tjl trmils md tjosl erles wjlrl tjl gofodmef ealdts fmvln.

^rmiefs md tjl offowmda worns, `er roh ilmda o` mhhlnmetl ildl`mt to tjltrmils, tjl lsteifmsjhldt o` gofodmef rufl md

Mdnme nmn host o` tjlh hugj horljerh tjed aoon. Mt hey il semn tjet tjl lerfy neys o` Irmtmsj enhmdmstretmod wlrljmajfy nltrmhldtef to tjl lgodohmg posmtmod o` trmils tjrouaj madoredgl edn dlaflgt o` tjlmr rmajt edn gustoh. ^jl prl-

mdnlpldnldt epproegj to trmief wlf`erl or nlvlfophldt wes o` e nm``lrldt typl. Wohl pofmgmls edn flamsfetmods wlrl

mhpflhldtln ednldegtln nurmda tjms plrmon to hmtmaetl tjl su``lrmdas o` tjl trmiefs edn prlvldt tjlmr lxpfomtetmod iy

outsmnlrs. jouaj tjlsl pofmgmls o` tjl Lxgfunln edn Sertmffy-Lxgfunln Erles wlrl hledt to protlgt tjl trmiefs tjly wlrl

md `egt pofmtmgeffy hotmvetln. ^jly wedtln to slgurl tjlmr owd steimfmty edn tjlrl`orl, tjly wlrl dot dlglssermfy hledt to

jlfp tjl plopfl to envedgl od tjl roen to proarlss. ^jlsl pofmgmls jlfpln to msofetl tjl trmiefs edn tjlrl`orl, prlvldtln

tjlh roh gohmda md godtegt wmtj tjl aldlref hess. Md sugj e gofodmef ettmtunl tjlrl wes do nlfmilretl ettlhpt to strldatjld

tjl lgodohmg iesl o` tjlsl nowdtronnld gohhudmtmls. E `lw hmssmodery edn vofudtery oraedmzetmods wlrl nomda sohl

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