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GSHC\D@G - B

R. 2. Ldscuss teh s`urchs n`r wrdtdgo bgcdhgt Dgldbg edst`ry. _ebt ds teh r`fh `n dgthrprhtbtd`g dg wrdtdgo bk`ut

teh bgcdhgt pbst0

Bgs.@vhr tdmh, ph`pfh fdvdgo dg Dgldb ebvh ushl mbgy ldnnhrhgt wrdtdgo systhms. \ehsh systhms whrh ohghrbffy

lhvhf`phl rhc`rl l`wg ldnnhrhgt typhs `n dgn`rmbtd`g bs teh ghhl br`sh.

Dgldbg cufturh khobg br`ugl teh Dglus [dvhr dg teh s`utehrg rhod`g `n Dgldb. _edfh lhthrmdgdgo teh edst`ry `n b

cufturh tebt prhchlhs wrdtdgo ds ldnndcuft, dt cbg kh l`gh wdte teh ehfp n b vbrdhty n s`urchs bgl mbthrdbfs. \ehsh mbthrdbfs

`nthg ghhl t` kh dgthrprhthl, kut tehy pr`vdlh bg `pp`rtugdty n`r edst`rdbgs bgl dgldvdlubfs t` uglhrstbgl teh w`rfl `n

bgcdhgt Dgldb. S`mh (ushl t`) sby tebt teh edst`ry `n Dgldb bgl teh Dgldbg Sukc`gtdghgt ldlgt khodg ugtdf teh Musfdms

dgvblhl dg teh 2;te chgtury B.L. _edfh te`r`uoe edst`ry-wrdtdgo mby sthm nr`m suce b fbth lbth, tehrh brh hbrfdhr edst`rd-

cbf wrdthrs wdte 2st-ebgl jg`wfhloh. Xgn`rtugbthfy, tehy l`gt hxthgl kbcj dg tdmh bs nbr bs wh mdoet fdjh `r bs nbr bs dg

`tehr bgcdhgt cufturhs._ehg wrdtdgo bk`ut b or`up `n ph`pfh we` ldhl te`usbgls `n yhbrs bo`, bs dg bgcdhgt edst`ry, tehrh brh bfwbys obps

bgl ouhsshs. Edst`ry thgls t` kh wrdtthg ky teh vdct`rs bgl bk`ut teh p`whrnuf. _ehg edst`ry ds g`t hvhg wrdtthg, bs wbs

teh cbsh dg hbrfy bgcdhgt Dgldb, tehrh brh stdff wbys t` hxtrbct dgn`rmbtd`g -- m`stfy brcebh`f`odcbf, kut bfs` `kscurh

fdthrbry thxts, dgscrdptd`gs dg n`ro`tthg fbgoubohs, bgl strby n`rhdog g`tdchs, kut dt l`hsgt fhgl dtshfn t` strbdoetfdgh

p`fdtdcbf edst`ry, teh edst`ry `n ehr`hs bgl hmpdrhs.

Bfte`uoe te`usbgls `n shbfs bgl dgscrdkhl brtdnbcts ebvh khhg rhc`vhrhl, teh Dglus scrdpt rhmbdgs uglhcdpehrhl.

Xgfdjh Hoypt r Mhs`p`tbmdb, teds rhmbdgs b cdvdfdzbtd`g dgbcchssdkfh t` edst`rdbgs.... Dg teh Dglus cbsh, wedfh teh lhschg-

lhgts n urkbg lwhffhrs bgl thceg`f`odcbf prbctdchs ldl g`t hgtdrhfy ldsbpphbr, teh cdtdhs tehdr bgchst`rs ebl dgebkdthl ldl.

Dglus scrdpt bgl teh dgn`rmbtd`g dt rhc`rlhl bfs` whrh g` f`gohr rhmhmkhrhl.

_ehg Lbrdus bgl Bfhxbglhr (3;? K.C.) dgvblhl Dgldb, tehy pr`vdlhl lbths br`ugl wedce teh edst`ry `n Dgldb ds

c`gstructhl. Dgldb ldl g`t ebvh dts `wg whsthrg-styfh edst`rdbg khn`rh tehsh dgcursd`gs, bgl s` rhbs`gbkfy rhfdbkfh cer`-

g`f`oy `n Dgldb lbths nr`m Bfhxbglhrs dgvbsd`g dg teh fbth

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dn y`u mhbg teh `rdodgbf shgsh `n Dgldb teh c`ugtry `n teh Dglus ^bffhy sdgch Bfhxbglhr ldlgt o` khy`gl teh Khbs

(Eypebsds).

Bfhxbglhrs blmdrbf Ghbrceus wr`th bk`ut teh Mbchl`gdbg nfhhts trbvhf nr`m teh Dglus [dvhr t` teh Yhrsdbg Oufn.

Brrdbg (c. B.L. 5? - bnthr 2

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te chgtury KC, whrh m`rh hobfdtbrdbg tebg Krbe-

mbgdsm tebt prhchlhl tehm bgl pr`vdlhl b khtthr hgvdr`gmhgt n`r teh or`wte n oudfls. Mbthrdbf whbfte bgl bgdmbfs whrh

sbcrdndchl dg teh Krbembgdcbf ybagbs. \eh Kulledsts bgl Abdgs ldl g`t phrn`rm suce ybagbs. \eus, mbthrdbf whbfte bgl

bgdmbfs whrh sbvhl bgl mblh bvbdfbkfh n`r trblh bgl c`mmhrch. Sdgch teh Kulledsts bgl Abdgs ldsrhobrlhl teh s`cdbf

tbk``s `n purdty/p`ffutd`g dg mdxdgo bgl tbjdgo n``l wdte ph`pfh `n f`whr vbrgbs, tehy nhft fhss c`gstrbdghl dg c`gluctdgo

f`go ldstbgch trblh. \eh Obutbmb Lebrmbsutrb (c. 8te chgtury KC) stbths tebt cuftdvbt`rs, trblhrs, ehrlsmhg, m`ghy-

fhglhrs, bgl brtdsbgs ebvh bute`rdty t` fby l`wg rufhs n`r tehdr rhsphctdvh cfbsshs bgl teh jdgo wbs t` c`gsuft tehdr

rhprhshgtbtdvhs wedfh lhbfdgo wdte mbtthrs rhfbtdgo t` tehm. \eh Abtbjb tbfhs rhnhr t` hdoethhg oudfls, t` tehdr ehbls, t`

f`cbfdzbtd`g `n dglustry bgl t` teh ehrhldtbry gbturh `n pr`nhssd`gs. \eh Abtbjb st`rdhs nrhquhgtfy rhnhr t` b s`g n`ff`wdgo

teh crbnt `n eds nbtehr. @nthg, jufb bgl puttb `ccur bs sunndxhs t` crbnt-gbmhs, teh n`rmhr dgldcbtdgo tebt teh we`fh nbmdfy

bl`pthl b pbrtdcufbr crbnt bgl teh fbtthr tebt teh s`g n`ff`whl teh crbnt n eds nbtehr. \eds hgsurhl rhoufbr trbdghl mbgp`whr

bgl crhbthl m`rh sphcdbfdzbtd`g. Ehrh dt ds p`dgthl ut tebt teh ehrhldtbry gbturh n pr`nhssd`g dg Dgldbg oudfls mbjhs tehm

ldnnhrhgt nr`m teh Hur`phbg oudfls `n teh Mdllfh Bohs we`sh mhmkhrsedp wbs dgvbrdbkfy kbshl `g teh ce`dch `n bgdgldvdlubf. Dt mby, e`whvhr, kh p`dgthl ut tebt bl`ptdgo b nbmdfy pr`nhssd`g wbs m`rh c`mm`g wdte mhmkhrs n crbntsmhgs

oudfls tebg wdte mhmkhrs `n trblhrs oudfls.

\eh Mburybg phrd`l ds edoefdoethl ky teh hxthgsdvh trhbtmhgt odvhg t` Oudfls ky Jbutdfyb we` c`gsdlhrs teh p`ssd-

kdfdty n oudfls bs bohgcdhs cbpbkfh n khc`mdgo chgtrhs `n p`whr. \ebpfybf p`dgts ut tebt teh Mburybg Hmpdrh (c. 3;9 t`

c. ;99 KC) wdtghsshl khtthr mbdgtbdghl edoewbys bgl dgcrhbshl m`kdfdty `n mhg bgl mhrcebgldsh. \eh stbth pbrtdcdpbthl

dg bordcufturbf bgl dglustrdbf pr`luctd`g. \eh o`vhrgmhgt jhpt b rhc`rl `n trblhs bgl crbnts bgl rhfbthl trbgsbctd`gs bgl

c`gvhgtd`gs `n teh oudfls, dgldcbtdgo stbth dgthrvhgtd`g dg oudfl-bnnbdrs. \eh stbth bff`tthl oudfls shpbrbth brhbs dg b t`wg

n`r ruggdgo tehdr trblh bgl crbnts. \eh mhmkhrs `n teh trdkbf rhpukfdcs tebt f`st p`fdtdcbf p`whr luh t` tehdr dgc`rp`rbtd`g

dg teh hxthgsdvh Mburybg Hmpdrh t``j t` crbnts bgl trblhs bgl n`rmhl hc`g`mdc `robgdzbtd`gs.

\ebpfybf c`gsdlhrs teh phrd`l c. ;99 KC t` c. BL 399 bs teh fbst pebsh `n oudfls dg bgcdhgt Dgldb. \eh lhcfdgh `n teh

Mburybg Hmpdrh (c. ;99 KC) fhl t` p`fdtdcbf ldsdgthorbtd`g bgl fbxdty dg stbth c`gtr`f `vhr oudfls, bff`wdgo tehm khtthr

cebgchs t` or`w. \eh hpdorbpes nr`m Sbgced, Kebreut, K`leobyb, Mbteurb bgl teh sdths `n whsthrg Lhccbg rhnhr t`l`gbtd`gs mblh ky ldnnhrhgt crbntsmhg bgl trblhrs. Oudfls n nf`ur-mbjhrs, whbvhrs, df-mdffhrs, p`tthrs, mbgunbcturhrs n

eylrbufdc hgodghs, c`rg-lhbfhrs, kbmk``-w`rjhrs, htc. ndgl mhgtd`g dg teh hpdorbpes.

SHC\D@G- K

R. 5. Ldscuss teh lhvhf`pmhgt `n teh kebjtd trbldtd`g bs lhscrdkhl dg teh Sbgobm thxts.

Bgs.Sbgobm fdthrbturh c`mprdshs s`mh `n teh `flhst hxtbgt \bmdf fdthrbturh, bgl lhbfs wdte f`vh, wbr, o`vhrgbgch,

trblh bgl khrhbvhmhgt. Xgn`rtugbthfy muce `n teh \bmdf fdthrbturh khf`godgo t` teh Sbgobm phrd`l ebs khhg f`st. \eh

fdthrbturh currhgtfy bvbdfbkfh nr`m teds phrd`l ds phrebps aust b nrbctd`g `n teh whbfte `n mbthrdbf pr`luchl lurdgo teds

o`flhg boh `n \bmdf cdvdfdzbtd`g. \eh bvbdfbkfh fdthrbturh nr`m teds phrd`l ebs khhg kr`blfy ldvdlhl dg bgtdqudty dgt` terhh

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cbtho`rdhs kbshl r`uoefy `g cer`g`f`oy. \ehsh brh1 teh Mba`r Hdoethhg Bgte`f`oy Shrdhs c`mprdsdgo teh Hdoet Bgte`f`-

odhs bgl teh \hg Dlyffs bgl teh Ndvh Orhbt Hpdcs. \`fjbbppdybm, b c`mmhgtbry g orbmmbr, pe`ghtdcs, reht`rdc bglp`htdcs

ds lbthl nr`m teds phrd`l. \eh hbrfy Sbgobm fdthrbturh, stbrtdgo nr`m teh phrd`l `n ;gl chgtury KCH, c`gtbdg bgte`f`odhs

`n vbrd`us p`hts lhbfdgo wdte mbgy bsphcts `n fdnh, dgcfuldgo f`vh, wbr, s`cdbf vbfuhs bgl rhfdod`g. \eds wbs n`ff`whl ky

teh hbrfy hpdcs bgl m`rbf fdthrbturh, bute`rhl ky Edglu, Abdg bgl Kulledst bute`rs, fbstdgo up t` teh 8te chgtury CH. Nr`m

teh >te t` 2;te chgtury CH, teh \bmdf lhv`td`gbf p`hms wrdtthg ky Gbybgmbrs (sbohs `n Sebdvdsm) bgl (Bfvbrs, sbohs `n

^bdsegbvdsm) ehrbflhl teh orhbt Kebjtd m`vhmhgt wedce fbthr hgoufnhl teh hgtdrh Dgldbg sukc`gtdghgt. Dt ds lurdgo teds

hrb tebt s`mh `n teh orbglhst `n \bmdf fdthrbry cfbssdcs fdjh Jbmkbrbmbybgbm bgl Yhrdyb Yurbgbm whrh bute`rhl bgl

mbgy p`hts whrh pbtr`gdzhl ky teh dmphrdbf Ce`fb bgl Ybglyb hmpdrhs. \eh fbthr mhldhvbf phrd`l sbw mbgy bss`rthlmdg`r fdthrbry w`rjs bgl bfs` c`gtrdkutd`gs ky b nhw Musfdm bgl Hur`phbg bute`rs. Ky ebvdgo teh m`st bgcdhgt g`g-

Sbgsjrdtdzhl Dgldbg fdthrbturh, \bmdf fdthrbturh ds ugdquh bgl teus ebs khc`mh teh sukahct n stuly ky sce`fbrs we` wdse t`

lhfdghbth teh g`g-Brybg bgl prh-Brybg strbgls dg Dgldbg cufturh.

Sbgobm fdthrbturh c`mprdshs s`mh `n teh `flhst hxtbgt \bmdf fdthrbturh, bgl lhbfs wdte f`vh, wbr, o`vhrgbgch, trblh

bgl khrhbvhmhgt. Xgn`rtugbthfy muce n teh \bmdf fdthrbturh khf`godgo t` teh Sbgobm phrd`l ebs khhg f`st. \eh fdthrbturh

currhgtfy bvbdfbkfh nr`m teds phrd`l ds phrebps aust b nrbctd`g `n teh whbfte `n mbthrdbf pr`luchl lurdgo teds o`flhg boh `n

\bmdf cdvdfdzbtd`g. \eh bvbdfbkfh fdthrbturh nr`m teds phrd`l ebs khhg kr`blfy ldvdlhl dg bgtdqudty dgt` terhh cbtho`rdhs

kbshl r`uoefy g cer`g`f`oy. \ehsh brh1 teh Mba`r Hdoethhg Bgte`f`oy Shrdhs c`mprdsdgo teh Hdoet Bgte`f`odhs bgl teh

\hg Dlyffs bgl teh Ndvh Orhbt Hpdcs. \`fjbbppdybm, b c`mmhgtbry `g orbmmbr, pe`ghtdcs, reht`rdc bgl p`htdcs ds lbthl

nr`m teds phrd`l. \bmdf fhohgls e`fl tebt tehsh whrh c`mp`shl dg terhh succhssdvh p`htdc bsshmkfdhs (Sbgobm) tebt whrh

ehfl dg bgcdhgt tdmhs `g b g`w vbgdsehl c`gtdghgt nbr t` teh s`ute `n Dgldb. B sdogdndcbgt bm`ugt `n fdthrbturh c`ufl ebvh

prhchlhl \`fjbppdybm bs orbmmbr k``js brh usubffy wrdtthg bnthr teh hxdsthgch `n fdthrbturh `vhr f`go phrd`ls. \bmdf

trbldtd`g e`fls teh hbrfdhst Sbgobm p`htry t` kh `vhr twhfvh mdffhggdb `fl. M`lhrg fdgoudstdc sce`fbrsedp pfbchs teh

p`hms khtwhhg teh 2st chgtury KC bgl teh 3rl chgtury BL. Sbgobm boh ds c`gsdlhrhl ky teh \bmdf ph`pfh bs teh o`flhg

hrb `n \bmdf fbgouboh. \eds wbs teh phrd`l wehg teh \bmdf c`ugtry wbs rufhl ky teh terhh cr`wghl jdgos teh Cehrbs,

Ybglybs bgl teh Ce`fbs. \eh fbgl wbs bt phbch wdte g` mba`r hxthrgbf terhbts. Bs`jbs c`gquhsts ldl g`t dmpbct `g teh

\bmdf fbgl bgl teh ph`pfh whrh bkfh t` dglufoh dg fdthrbry pursudts. \eh p`hts ebl b muce m`rh cbsubf rhfbtd`gsedp wdte

tehdr rufhrs tebg cbg kh dmbodghl dg fbthr tdmhs. \ehy c`ufl cedlh tehm wehg tehy brh phrchdvhl t` wbglhr nr`m teh

strbdoet bgl gbrr`w. \eh orhbtghss `n teh Sbgobm boh p`htry mby kh bscrdkhl g`t s` muce t` dts bgtdqudty, kut luh t` teh

nbct tebt tehdr bgchst`rs whrh dglufodgo dg fdthrbry pursudts bgl f`odcbf cfbssdndcbtd`g `n teh ebkdtbts bgl s`cdhty dg b

systhmbtdc mbgghr wdte fdttfh t` lrbw nr`m prhchlhgts l`mhstdcbffy `r hfshwehrh. \eh nbct tebt tehsh cfbssdndcbtd`gs whrh

l`cumhgthl bt b vhry hbrfy lbth dg teh orbmmbtdcbf trhbtdsh \`fjbppdybm, lhm`gstrbths teh `robgdzhl mbgghr dg wedce

teh \bmdf fbgouboh ebs hv`fvhl. \`fjbppdybm ds g`t mhrhfy b thxtk``j g \bmdf orbmmbr odvdgo teh dgnfhctd`g bgl sygtbx`n w`rls bgl shgthgchs kut bfs` dgcfulhs cfbssdndcbtd`g `n ebkdtbts, bgdmbfs, pfbgts bgl eumbg khdgos. \eh ldscussd`g `g

eumbg hm`td`gs bgl dgthrbctd`gs ds pbrtdcufbrfy sdogdndcbgt. \`fjbppdybm ldvdlhl dgt` terhh cebpthrs1 `rte`orbpey, hty-

m`f`oy bgl sukahct mbtthr (Y`ruf). _edfh teh ndrst tw` cebpthrs `n \`fjbppdybm ehfp c`ldny teh fbgouboh, teh fbst pbrt,

Y`ruf rhnhrs t` teh ph`pfh bgl tehdr khebvd`r. \eh orbmmbr ehfps t` c`gvhy teh fdthrbry mhssboh `g eumbg khebvd`r bgl

c`gluct, bgl ugdquhfy mhrohs teh fbgouboh wdte dts ph`pfh.

\eh fdthrbturh wbs cfbssdndhl dgt` teh kr`bl cbtho`rdhs `n sukahctdvh (bjbm) bgl `kahctdvh (purbm) t`pdcs t` hgbkfh

teh p`htdc mdgls t` ldscuss bgy t`pdc uglhr teh sug, nr`m orbmmbr t` f`vh, wdtedg teh nrbmhw`rj `n whff prhscrdkhl,

s`cdbffy bcchpthl c`gvhgtd`gs.

R. 4. C`mpbrh bgl c`gtrbst Obgledads bgl Lr. Bmkhljbrs vdhws `g teh cbsth systhm.

Bgs.gldb ds ugtedgjbkfh wdte`ut teh c`gtr`vhrsy khtwhhg Mbebtmb Obgled bgl K.[. Bmkhljbr `g teds mbtthr. \ebt

ds wey teh `kahctdvh `n my thrm-pbphr ds t` se`w teh lhvhf`pmhgt `n tehdr lhkbths bgl e`w k`te `n tehm lhndghl teh

pr`kfhm `n Xgt`ucebkdfdty bgl dts s`futd`g. \` tebt hgl D wdff prhshgt dg lhtbdfs tw` c`rh rhbs`gs `n tehdr lhkbths. Obgledwdsehl t` sbvh Edgludsm ky bk`fdsedgo ugt`ucebkdfdty, wehrhbs Bmkhljbr sbw b s`futd`g n`r eds ph`pfh `utsdlh teh n`fl

`n teh l`mdgbgt rhfdod`g `n teh Dgldbg ph`pfh. Obgled wbs b rurbf r`mbgtdc, we` wdsehl t` mbjh teh shfn-o`vhrgdgo

vdffboh teh khlr`cj `n nrhh Dgldb: Bmkhljbr bg blmdrhr `n cdty fdnh bgl m`lhrg thceg`f`oy we` ldsmdsshl teh Dgldbg

vdffboh bs b lhg `n dgdqudty. CBS\H ds teh ghbrfy hdoety-yhbr-`fl thxt `n b sphhce tebt wbs ghvhr lhfdvhrhl.* _ehg D ndrst

rhbl dt D nhft bs te`uoe s`mhk`ly ebl wbfjhl dgt` b ldm r``m bgl `phghl teh wdgl`ws. [hbldgo Lr Kedmrb` [bmad

Bmkhljbr krdlohs teh obp khtwhhg webt m`st Dgldbgs brh sce``fhl t` khfdhvh dg bgl teh rhbfdty wh hxphrdhgch hvhry lby

`n `ur fdvhs.

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Yuttdgo teh Bmkhljbr-Obgled lhkbth dgt` c`gthxt n`r te`sh ugnbmdfdbr wdte dts edst`ry bgl dts pr`tbo`gdsts wdff rh-

qudrh lht`urs dgt` tehdr vhry ldnnhrhgt p`fdtdcbf trbahct`rdhs. N`r teds wbs ky g` mhbgs aust b teh`rhtdcbf lhkbth khtwhhg tw`

mhg we` ehfl ldnnhrhgt `pdgd`gs. Hbce rhprhshgthl vhry shpbrbth dgthrhst or`ups, bgl tehdr kbttfh ugn`flhl dg teh ehbrt `n

Dgldbs gbtd`gbf m`vhmhgt. _ebt tehy sbdl bgl ldl c`gtdguhs t` ebvh bg dmmhgsh khbrdgo g c`gthmp`rbry p`fdtdcs. \ehdr

ldnnhrhgchs whrh (bgl rhmbdg) drrhc`gcdfbkfh. K`te brh lhhpfy f`vhl bgl nthg lhdndhl ky tehdr n`ff`whrs. Dt pfhbshs ghdtehr

c`gstdtuhgcy t` ebvh teh `tehrs st`ry t`fl, te`uoe teh tw` brh dghxtrdcbkfy fdgjhl. Bmkhljbr wbs Obgleds m`st n`rmd-

lbkfh blvhrsbry. Eh cebffhgohl edm g`t aust p`fdtdcbffy r dgthffhctubffy, kut bfs` m`rbffy. \` ebvh hxcdshl Bmkhljbr nr`m

Obgleds st`ry, wedce ds teh st`ry wh bff orhw up g, ds b trbvhsty. Hqubffy, t` dog`rh Obgled wedfh wrdtdgo bk`ut Bmkhljbr

ds t` l` Bmkhljbr b ldsshrvdch, khcbush Obgled f``mhl `vhr Bmkhljbrs w`rfl dg myrdbl bgl ug-w`glhrnuf wbys.Obgleds vdhws dg rhobrl t` kbsdc bsphcts `n teh cbsth systhm cebgohl dg teh fbst yhbrs `n eds fdnh. Dg teh 24;9seh ebl ehfl

tebt hvhry Edglu must n`ff`w teh ehrhldtbry pr`nhssd`g bgl tebt pr`edkdtd`g `n dgthrmbrrdboh khtwhhg ph`pfh `n

ldnnhrhgt vbrgbs wbs ghchssbry n`r b rbpdl hv`futd`g n teh s`uf. Kut fbthr eh orblubffy khcbmh b s`cdbf rhv`fu-td`gdst,

blv`cbtdgo dgthrmbrrdboh khtwhhg Krbemdgs bgl Xgt`ucebkfhs dg `rlhr t` ldsmbgtfh teh cbsth systhm r``t bgl krbgce,

bgl bcjg`wfhlodgo tebt _ehg bff khc`mh cbsthfhss, m`g`p`fy `n `ccupbtd`gs w`ufl o`. \eh cebgohs whrh luhdg pbrt

t` teh dgnfuhgch `n tw` `pp`ghgts `n teh cbsth systhm we`sh dgthordty eh ehfl dg edoe rhobrl1 Bmkhljbr bgl O`rb.Eds

vdhw `n mbrrdboh khtwhhg ph`pfh `n ldnnhrhgt rhfdod`us bnndfdbtd`gs uglhrwhgt b sdmdfbr cebgoh.

\`wbrl teh hgl `n eds fdnh (25>4-24