O impacto das controvérsias sócio-científicas nas concepções e práticas de professores de ciências naturais portugueses

8/14/2019 O impacto das controvrsias scio-cientficas nas concepes e prticas de professores de cincias naturais portug

1/19

Research in Science Education 34: 153171, 2004. 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

The Impact of Socio-Scientific Controversies in Portuguese Natural Science

Teachers Conceptions and Practices

Pedro Reis and Ceclia GalvoLisbon University

Abstract

This article discusses the results of a qualitative study, based on case studies, aimed at: (a) assessinga group of Portuguese secondary school natural science teachers regarding their conceptions ofthe nature, teaching and learning of science; (b) studying possible impacts of recent controversiessurrounding scientific and technological issues on these conceptions and on teachers classroompractices. Five teachers, with different backgrounds and teaching experience, were observed duringclasses and interviewed with the purpose of studying: (a) the relationship between their conceptions

and classroom practices; and (b) the factors that impede or enhance this relationship. Subsequently,observation notes and interview transcriptions were systematically analysed. The socio-scientificcontroversies recently discussed in Portugal seem to have had an impact on teachers (1) concep-tions about the nature, teaching and learning of science; and (2) classroom practice. However, notall teachers were able to teach according to their conceptions. Some factors seem to mediate therelationship between teachers conceptions and classroom practice: National Curriculum, nationalexams, teachers previous experience as scientists, and personal educational priorities or aims. Basedon the results obtained, some remarks and educational implications are discussed.

Key Words: classroom practice, controversial science-based issues, nature of science, science edu-cation, teachers conceptions

Over the last few years, like in many other countries, Portuguese society has beenshaken by numerous controversies related to science and technology, such as: (1) theco-incineration of toxic waste in concrete factories and the subsequent release ofdangerous substances into the atmosphere; (2) the possible transmission of BSE(Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy) to humans through beef consumption; (3) thepotential negative effects of mobile phone radiation; (4) the possible negative effectsof the construction of dams in certain areas of the country; (5) human cloning, etc.These situations have led to strong reactions in the Portuguese population (fear,anger, hysteria) and caused social tension between individual rights and social aims,political priorities and environmental values, economic interests and health concerns.Almost every day the media make sensationalist headlines out of these themes, oftenmore concerned about audience ratings than information.

Some studies have shown that the public image of science is determined by themost recent controversial events (Thomas, 1997). Therefore, all these controversies,besides having provoked reactions and tensions in the Portuguese population, may


2/19

154 PEDRO REIS AND CECILIA GALVO

also have influenced their conceptions of science and, subsequently, their thoughts,discourses and decisions about socio-scientific issues.

Given the importance and relevance of this theme, this research intended to studythe possible impact of recent controversies surrounding scientific and technological

issues made public by the media on a group of Portuguese natural science teach-ers, regarding their (1) conceptions of the nature, teaching and learning of scienceand (2) classroom practice. It is assumed that through the ideas they transmit, thestrategies they implement and the way they approach these controversies in class,teachers may have a considerable impact on the conceptions students construct aboutscience.

In Portugal, this study is particularly meaningful during the implementation ofa new science curriculum which calls for the discussion of polemic and up-to-datescientific and technological themes, as a way of preparing pupils for active, informedparticipationin society (Galvo, 2001; Galvo & Abrantes, 2002). On the other hand,the discussion of socio-scientific themes may have positive effects regarding theconstruction of a more realistic image of science and technology and the stimulation

of social interactions in the classroom (Reis, 1997, 1999).

Theoretical Background

Several authors believe that school contributes, both implicitly and explicitly, tothe construction of limited conceptions regarding the nature of science (Duschl,2000; Monk & Dillon, 2000). When school science favours the illustration, verifi-cation and memorisation of a perfectly established, non-controversial body of knowl-edge, it presents science as an objective, value-free process, which leads to absolute,indisputable truths, through rigorous observation of regularities in phenomena andthe establishment of generalisations. However, real science is quite different. Spe-

cialists often have conflicting opinions, given that socio-scientific controversies can-not be solved merely on a technical basis, because they involve hierarchies of values,personal conveniences, social and economic group pressures, etc.

The media often present a sensationalist image of science, using only certainstories and presenting polemic theories as if they were facts, and scientists as su-perior beings living in a world apart (Nelkin, 1995). They constantly use strikingexpressions and metaphors disaster, blessing of modern medicine, new landmark,fraud which influence the way citizens understand, think about and act upon socio-scientific issues (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Through this language they shape thepopulations conceptions about science. In a study about the metaphors used byBritish newspapers in articles on biotechnology, Liakopoulos (2002) found largenumbers of metaphors aimed at conveying very positive images revolution, break-

through, big step, golden opportunity, goldmine, miracle and very negative ones Pandoras Box, threat, killer plants, Frankenstein, Nazi-like. He also observed thatthe biotechnologist was portrayed as a mad scientist or an evil genius who intends to


3/19

SOCIO-SCIENTIFIC CONTROVERSIES AND PORTUGUESE TEACHERS 155

reach his/her objectives no matter what an image that he believes has a considerableeffect on the publics trust in biotechnology.

Over the past few decades, several studies have shown relations between sci-ence teachers conceptions and classroom practices (Brickhouse, 1990; Cross &

Price, 1996; Czerniak & Lumpe, 1996; Gallagher, 1991; Hashweh, 1996). However,the assumption that teachers conceptions of science are transposed to their class-room practice has been questioned (Lederman, 1992; Tobin & McRobbie, 1997).Certain factors seem to influence the transposition of teachers conceptions aboutscience to their classroom practice: (a) experience in class management and or-ganisation; (b) teaching experience; (c) pressure to cover contents; (d) limitationsimposed by practicum supervisors or by the institutions; (e) knowledge about thenature of science or the necessary resources to teach it; (f) content knowledge; (g) theimportancegiven by teachers to the teaching of the nature of science; (h) teachers in-tention to explicitly approach this theme (Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Lederman, 1998;Brickhouse & Bodner, 1992; Duschl & Wrigth, 1989; Schwartz & Lederman, 2002).

As regards possible relations between teachers conceptions about science teach-

ing and learning in general and their classroom practices, the conclusions of researchalso diverge. Whereas some studies report relations between these two variables(Koulaidis & Ogborn, 1995; Tobin & Espinet, 1989), others show that teachers havesome difficulty in transposing their ideas on science teaching and learning to theclassroom (Gess-Newsome & Lederman, 1993).

Problem and Methodology

The study presented in this article is part of a larger research, essentially qualita-tive, that studies the impact of recent controversies surrounding science and technol-ogy on the pedagogical practice of a group of Portuguese Natural Science teachers

and on the conceptions these teachers and their students have of science and tech-nology. An interpretative methodology, based on case studies, was chosen in orderto: (1) study their conceptions of the nature, teaching and learning of science; and(2) assess the possible impact of recent controversies surrounding science and tech-nology made public by the media on these conceptions and on their classroompractices.

This paper refers only to a small group of five teachers, from the total involved inthe larger research. These teachers taught Natural Science (Biology and Geology) tostudents aged 13 to 18 years (7th12th grade) in five separate schools in Lisbon andits outskirts. The wide range in experience (3, 8, 25, 33 and 39 years of teaching) andprofessional and personal trajectories were the criteria used for their selection. Overthe last years, all five teachers had worked with the researchers on other projects: the

close working relationship between teachers and researchers was intended to con-tribute to the authenticity of data collected. The aim was to learn about the impact ofcontroversies in science on a specific and eclectic group of Natural Science teachers.


4/19


Applying or generalising the results reached by this study to other situations is up tothe readers (Merriam, 1988).

During one school year, information was gathered through semi-structured inter-views, classroom observation, open-ended questionnaires and analysis of classroom

plans and materials. All data collected underwent a process of independent analysis,followed by a process of triangulation. However, this paper refers mainly to theresults of classroom observation and analysis of the interviews.

The interviews were audiotaped in each school by the researchers before and afterthe observation of 14 successive classes (for each teacher). Through this procedurethe researchers aimed to investigate the relationship between teachers conceptionsand classroom practices, and to study the factors that impede or enhance this relation-ship. The semi-structured interview was designed to collect data on each teachersacademic background, teaching experience, goals and objectives for natural sci-ence classes and conceptions of the nature, teaching and learning of science. Theinterviews gathered opinions in the subjects own language, allowing for an intu-itive understanding of the aspects under scrutiny. Both classroom observation notes

and full transcriptions of the interviews were analysed using a model of analyticalinduction (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Through this approach, explanations of thephenomenon under investigation are continually formulated and tested as data areanalysed. The ultimate goal is to obtain an explanation suitable for all cases underinvestigation.

Results

Fernanda: Informal Extra-programme Conversations to Clarify Doubts about NewBreakthroughs in Natural Sciences

Fernanda has been a teacher for 39 years. When she was nineteen, she began towork at Primary School level, but eleven years later, after concluding her degree inBiology at Lisbon University, she moved on to the secondary school, teaching allnatural science subjects. Currently, she is teaching mostly 12th grade subjects. Sheregards herself as an affective, enthusiastic, persistent person, with a rather logical,demanding and rigorous spirit (which she seeks to develop in her students).

Conceptions about scientific and technological knowledge

Fernanda associates (1) science with rigour, honesty, comprehension, creativity,understanding and modesty; and (2) technology with rigour, efficacy and adaptabil-ity. In her own words:

(. . .) Science is something I try to explain, (. . .) its a reality which is built little by little with the data wehave, therefore there is never such a thing as definite science. (. . .) Science advances (. . .) as we constantlyquestion what we initially accepted as true.


5/19


She feels that for scientific knowledge to be considered as such, there must bescientific data and proof to validate it; an opinion, on the other hand, may be basedeither on data or on affective or social reasons.

This teacher refers to genetic engineering, cloning, transgenic food and organ

transplants as examples of scientific and technological issues that are controversial,warning that we must be very careful regarding certain discoveries for they mayturn out to be Pandoras Boxes, opened by wizardry apprentices who trigger aseries of forces without knowing how to control them. Yet she believes that if sci-ence were restrained, that would mean the stagnation of scientific knowledge. So shedefends the need to continue researching (. . .), to gain more and more knowledgein fields which remain slightly taboo up to a certain point, even though this impliesrunning the risk of misusing new discoveries. Despite considering that the populationover-reacts to some of the controversial issues she mentioned, Fernanda is concernedabout the eventual construction of genetically modified organisms for instance,programmed individuals who may threaten human freedom.

Conceptions about Natural Science teaching

Fernanda believes that a scientific culture shared by the whole population is es-sential for our present world to progress. She tries to go beyond the programmes,which is hard, especially in the final year of secondary school (12th grade) (. . .)because of the pressure of exams and the marks they need to achieve and such avast programme whose aims, unfortunately, are essentially about students knowingthings and not about learning to do things (. . .). Despite advocating a curricularreformulation of the 12th grade subject, she feels teachers always have some leewaythat allows them to promote students developmentof a scientific attitude and involvethem in the discovery of knowledge. Among the ideal activities for fulfilling thesegoals she suggests experimentation, which she does not use much because of theprogrammes length and the high number of students in the class (30, in general), and

the critical analysis of texts or data. She also values dialogue as a tool for explain-ing doubts, constructing knowledge and enhancing students motivation. However,in her opinion dialogue isnt always easy (. . .) because you spend more time ex-plaining something and, besides, the rigour factor may be a bit damaged. Despitevaluing experimental activities and dialogue, her classes mainly involve explanationof programme contents.

Conceptions about the discussion of controversial issues in the classroom

This teacher shows some difficulty in identifying topics of the science programmesthat allow discussion of controversial issues. In the upper Secondary School pro-grammes, she only points out cloning. She thinks the 12th grade programme has

no topics that allow this type of discussion and that its length, together with thepressure felt from having to prepare students for final exams, also hinder this kindof task. As for the 7th and 8th grade Natural Science programmes, her difficulty in


6/19


identifying controversial themes remains. But she states that these programmes arenot so vast, so teachers are freer to propose activities concerning the discussion ofcontroversial issues. Oddly enough, she stresses the importance of the EnvironmentalEducation area for developing an environmentalconscience in students, but she does

not consider that this theme includes controversial issues.However, despite all the limitations she points out, Fernanda states that sometimes

she discusses certain doubts pupils raise, originating what she calls informal, extra-programme conversations, which she identifies as the most fabulous moments ofher classes. In her opinion, these conversations turn out to be useful in educatingpeople who are capable of intervening in society, for they develop certain tools:knowledge, critical thinking, curiosity, etc.

Isabel: Link between Scientists/Technicians and Students Regarding theCommunication and Discussion of Breakthroughs in Natural Sciences

Isabel has two degrees in Biology one in Biological Sciences and the other inBiology Education and she has been teaching Natural Sciences for 25 years, aftera scientific training period in Agronomy and Soil Fauna. She has already taught allNatural Science subjects from the 7th to the 12th grades. In the last few years shehas been teaching 10th and 12th grade subjects. She feels professionally fulfilled,but apprehensive because she notices that programmes are far removed from reality(. . .), theyre kind of divorced from what actually goes on in biology currently. Inher opinion, programmes are outdated, tackling outmoded issues and do not includenew discoveries in biology. Besides this, she considers that the 12th grade ex-aminations, full of twists and turns, hamper teachers work because they feel anobligation to prepare students for assessment based chiefly on memorisation.

Isabel tries to keep up to date by going to congresses and conferences. She con-

siders herself as a link between scientists and students concerning the transmissionof up-to-date knowledge. Every year she seeks to reshape the way she teaches con-tents, namely using those shortcuts she can take without putting the programmeaside too much.


Isabel perceivesscience as being dynamic and transitory, something that awakensthe wish to learn more and makes us feel good about life and the world. Shebelieves that science is ruled by facts and real data that result from testing hypothesesthrough experimentation. Sometimes she has the feeling that technology can becomeslightly inaccessible because of the hermetic language that technicians use and the

communication difficulties many of them appear to have. She seeks to transmit toher students an idea of evolving science, marked by doubts and new discoveries thatsometimes change a given theory:


7/19


(. . .) its like when you meet someone. Often we think certain things about a person, we think weveunderstood him or her, and as we try to get to know the person better we start finding little things thatchange our idea of him or her the same happens with the world of science.

As examples of controversial scientific and technological themes she points out theuncertainties surrounding the causes and consequences of ozone depletion, AIDS,the transmission of genetic diseases, the Human Genome Project, genetically mod-ified organisms, organ production through cloning, pollution and co-incineration oftoxic waste in concrete factories. In her opinion, there is still a lot to learn, (. . .) todiscover and many fears remain regarding these issues because of certain lobbiesand some ignorance. She thinks that overcoming this situation demands that thepopulation be better informed by scientists who are independent of political powersand economic interests.


Isabel considers that Natural Science teaching is important for individuals gen-eral education because it conveys (1) useful knowledge about nature and the func-tioning and development of the human body; (2) the importance of science forknowledge evolution; and (3) a vision of an evolving world where there areno absolute truths. In terms of teaching strategies, this teacher values: (1) biblio-graphical research on current themes that interest students; and (2) lab work, forstudents to be able to feel what science is. She constantly seeks to establish rela-tions between different themes and stimulate students involvement and motivation.However, despite acknowledging the existence of kids who (. . .) are curious and tryto find answers themselves and confront these with others and with me, in manystudents she observes a terrible inertia, lack of attention and great difficulty inparticipating in classroom activities.


Isabel considers that there are several topics in the science programmes that allowsome of the aforementioned controversial issues to be discussed: The Immune Sys-tem and Evolution enable the respective discussion of issues concerning AIDS andgenetically modified organisms; the Study of the Planet Earth allows the problemof ozone depletion to be discussed; Heredity and Reproduction are appropriate fordebating cloning and the transmission of genetic diseases. This teacher believes thatapproaching these matters through videos, discussion, research work and debates enables students to: (1) locate themselves in the world they live in; (2) become

aware of issues that concern them; (3) acquire meaningful knowledge for theirlives; and (4) develop the idea that school is not something on the side, dissociatedfrom real life.


8/19


Madalena: Research and Discussion of Controversial Issues in the Development ofa Critical Attitude towards Science, the Promotion of Autonomy and the Definitionof the Values System

Madalena has been teaching for 33 years and took a degree in Biological Sciencesand another in Biology Education at Lisbon University. During the last few years shecompleted two courses in the field of Education: one specialisation in Assessmentand a Master degree in Teacher Education (themes she considers extremely relevantand interesting). After some years devoted to scientific research in Mozambique,at the Faculty of Sciences, she ended up embarking on a teaching career. She saysshe really likes being a teacher: her words reveal her huge enthusiasm in embracingher career, the same enthusiasm she transmits to her students. Lately, she has beenteaching 10th and 11th grade subjects.


Madalena finds science amazing, fascinating and believes it should serve Man,Man with a capital M, not just some men. She believes science is constantly evolv-ing and is not neutral, but rather, for her it involves matters of value, which lead todifferent opinions among scientists according to their individual beliefs and princi-ples. As for technology, she sees positive and negative aspects, the latter stemmingfrom the fact that technology is often ruled by economic and elitist interests.Therefore she firmly states she must impart to her students the knowledge and skillsthat are essential for critical evaluation and decision-making regarding situations orinformation:

I would like my students to be able to inform themselves scientifically about the situations at stake andbe critical and make their own decisions, be autonomous. ( . . .) Because manipulation scares me and itsso easy nowadays. It is important that students are aware of the fact that science is far from having solvedeverything, (. . .) lets not forget science is done by men, for men, for the better but also for the worst. So,

with all these limitations, we must (. . .) intervene, give our opinion, demand, assume responsibilities (. . .)and not act like sheep.

So she engages her students in collecting and critically analysing science relatedarticles from newspapers and magazines in order to detect possible mistakes orbias and acquire a critical attitude towards scientific information. The examplesshe gives of controversial scientific and technological issues are abortion, organtransplants, AIDS and cloning.


Madalena seeks to stimulate her students curiosity, create fascination for sci-ence and make them become very demanding in terms of science and its applica-

tions. She believes that science teaching contributes to the individuals education,as an intervening and responsible citizen, promoting a path of pursuit, research,curiosity and questioning that should always arise, a critical spirit:


9/19


(. . .) knowledge has to be structured, based on that curiosity, it must be a constant search, not just takingexams, repeating things that were acquired like a parrot, things which have no meaning at all sometimes.(. . .) More than providing information, there has to be a concern for the full education of the individual,(. . .) the capacity to reflect upon knowledge . . . (. . .) And all this requires constant questioning, not thatacquired, static knowledge.

In order to reach this goal, she thinks its necessary to know how to wastetime, that is, to use strategies that stimulate reflection. Her whole discourse showsa remarkable flexibility in managing the programmes. Despite the fact that the pro-grammes are so vast, Madalena thinks its possible to achieve both information andthe development of skills and she admits that sometimes the programme is not fullycovered in favour of the development of certain skills. She refers to the examplesof research work, public presentations (at school and at the town hall) and debatesabout several themes of Reproduction and Sexuality that her students have carriedout.


In her opinion there are several topics in the Natural Science programmes that aregood for conducting discussions about controversial issues. For instance, Reproduc-tion and Heredity can be used to discuss abortion, birth control, sexually transmitteddiseases, cloning, genetic diagnosis, genetic engineering, transgenic food productsor other themes that come up at the time (for example, the case of the Siamese twinswhose survival depended on eliminating one). Madalena stresses how important it isfor students moral development to discuss controversial issues:

(. . .) its not just for the sake of discussing, its because I feel its important that each one becomes awareof what values he/she believes in when making a choice, what values he/she placed above the rest ( . . .).I truly believe that (. . .) by discussing these issues, we are trying to help the student find his/her own path,not my path nor the next-door neighbours path.

This teacher considers that research and the discussion of controversial issues helpstudents to define their own value system and assume full citizenship.

Rita: Research and Discussion for Students Cultural and Intellectual Developmentand the Construction of a Scientific Culture

Ritas first experience as a Natural Science teacher occurred when she was inthe third year of her degree in Applied Plant Biology, at Lisbon University. Thisexperience was so exceptional that she considered changing areas and embarkingon a teaching career. However, her taste for research led her to conclude her degree

in Applied Plant Biology, train at the University of Milan, in Italy, and then workat a Research Institute in Biotechnology. But she missed her classes throughoutthis time and some years later the call for teaching spoke louder than the call for


10/19


research. Currently in her eighth year of teaching, she is an active collaborator of thePortuguese Biologists Association. Having taught all the Natural Science subjects,she is currently dedicating herself entirely to a subject she proposed in her school (forthe 10th, 11th and 12th grades): Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Biology.

Rita considers herself to be 100 percent fulfilled as a teacher, but sometimesshe feels frustrated with the poor conditions for carrying out this occupation andwith her colleagues lack of professional engagement and commitment. However,she has a group of equally enthusiastic peers outside school, with whom she sharesthe huge amount of ideas, information and materials she keeps collecting in coursesand national and international projects she takes part in.


Rita classifies science and technology as interesting, stimulating and fun. Herintention is that students build the idea that science can be done by anyone, itsvery hard but at the same time, sometimes its very simple (. . .) and any of them

can become a scientist. She also seeks to stress the relation between science andeveryday situations: (. . .) science is actually related to their everyday lives, from themoment theywake up until they go to sleep. She believes in the constant evolution ofscientific knowledge and that it differs from opinions due to its reasoned groundingand rigour.

Her examples of controversial scientific and technological issues include cloning,transgenic food products, xenotransplants, in vitro fertilisation and freezing embryos.She finds it hard to present a general stance regarding each of these matters and statesthat they should be analysed step-by-step and case-by-case. However, she expresses:(a) no problem at all in consuming transgenic food products; (b) some apprehensionregarding the environmental impact of genetically modified plants; (c) disagreementas far as human cloning is concerned; and (d) agreement with the cloning of specificorgans. She believes that much of the controversy surrounding these issues is linkedto the general publics lack of information and certain technological abuses that werecarried out in the past. Therefore, she strives to make her students understand anddiscuss the technological aspects involved and their ethical and moral implications,as in her opinion citizens must participate actively in the control of scientific andtechnological activities.


Rita feels that Natural Science teaching prepares people to make the best oftheir lives and understand everything that surrounds them. She also firmly believesthat science teaching is extremely important for students cultural and intellectualdevelopment and for the construction of a scientific culture:

I think [science teaching] is very important in terms of the kids culture and intelligence. Good scienceclasses prepare a student to be everything he or she wants to be: a student who is a good observer, who


11/19


knows how to note what he observes, discusses all he observes, interprets all he observes, is fit for anyprofession. I think that nowadays scientific culture is essential. Everyone has heard of cloning, but fewknow what it means.

In order to reach these aims, she uses something she calls a theoretical andpractical approach, consisting of sequences of classes with a theoretical introduc-tion followed by an extremely pronounced and varied practical component that mayinvolve students in activities such as research in books, scientific journals and the In-ternet, lab work, discussion of results or problematic issues (sometimes with studentsfrom other countries) and composing reports:

Nothing should be used on its own. I hear a lot of people say theyre against explanatory classes, and soam I if theyre only explanatory, although I think this dimension is essential. But Im also against recipeclasses, you follow the recipe, youve got the work done. (. . .) I think the key is to vary as much as possiblein each lesson.


Rita believes that the Natural Science programmes allow the discussion of all theabove-mentioned controversial issues, as long as teachers are interested, motivatedand have the training for such a task:

(. . .) these issues are linked to a vast array of topics, they fit in anywhere, the teacher just has to want andknow how [to approach them]! For instance, I can talk about cloning when I teach Biomolecules, the Cell,Genetics or Evolution. (. . .) Biology is all interrelated, in fact I think everythings related to Biology ( . . .)theres always room to fit this in [discussion of controversial issues] and theres always time.

Rita uses several strategies to approach controversial issues. Sometimes she sim-ply clarifies students doubts regarding a given matter. Sometimes, these issues arethe pretext for undertaking research on the Internet, discussions, debates and in-quiries it all depends on the characteristics of the class. Usually the students level

of curiosity and interest determines which strategy to choose:

(. . .) when the Gulf War broke out, the 8th grade kids got to class and asked me: Whats a biologicalweapon? And the following day there I was, with Petri dishes, with bacteria (. . . ) and they had no ideawhat a bacteria was (. . . )!

In this teachers opinion, discussion promotes students intellectual developmentand the construction of a scientific culture fundamental for an active citizenship.

Paulo: The Discussion of Controversial Issues in the Construction of a Concept ofScience as a Collective Activity Whose Progress Clearly Depends on the Discussionof Ideas

Paulo has a degree in Biology and Geology Teaching, taken at Lisbon University.He has been a teacher for three years. During this time he taught Natural Science


12/19


subjects from the 5th to the 12th grades and carried out several activities, namelyin projects of the Ministry of Science and Technology aimed at divulging science inschool. He is currently participating in a project of the Institute for the Conservationof Nature because he feels it is extremely important that teachers stay informed

through contact with the centres where science is produced and by confrontingideas with people from diverse fields. At the moment he is teaching the 7th and8th grades and is the Co-ordinator of the Science Department. He really enjoys hisprofession, particularly working with his students, and he feels that his scientific andpedagogic training allows him to face any changes in the lesson plan in a confidentand relaxed manner.


Paulo views science as a dynamic, engaging, useful, alluring field of discussion,and technology as a working tool for obtaining more knowledge. He believes thatscientific knowledge results from a process of constant observation, experimentation

and reflection.The examples of controversial scientific and technological issues he refers to aregenetic manipulation, birth control, drug addiction, sexual orientation and the segre-gation of HIV-infected people. Despite acknowledging the need to deepen researchabout the possible environmental impact of some of these innovations, he shows littlefear when it comes to consuming genetically modified products (such as geneticallyaltered corn wheat). He thinks there is not enough information to convince him aboutpossible dangers.


Paulo feels that his role should not merely be one of conveying knowledge, butit should comprise of other aspects such as establishing a sound relationship with

students and trying to contribute to their education as citizens, namely by promotingthe development of an attitude of constant inquiry regarding the World. He believesthat Natural Science teaching enables us to better understand where we live, howwe live and what we live for.

He approaches Natural Science teaching according to a constructivist, interaction-ist perspective, constantly valuing students previous knowledge and interaction forthe purpose of knowledge construction. Subsequently, he strongly endorses groupwork and classroom discussion, which he implements every day, despite certaininherent difficulties:

(. . .) In this school my classes are in groups and the kids have to organise their desks in groups; whenI finish the lesson, it just so happens that the teacher after me doesnt teach groups so I have to put thedesks back again, and that requires a lot of physical exertion. (. . .) At the beginning, working in groups

isnt easy. Even at these ages, theyve already got a group, their own group. Usually they dont like thegroups to begin with and so on, but after two months they realise that with this methodology classes runmore smoothly.


13/19


He believes in the decisive role played by group work, research and discussionin constructing a concept of science as a collective activity whose progress clearlydepends on the discussion of ideas:

(. . .) I began to see that it [group work] was the best way to teach science classes, also because it obeyeda set of ideas. I started thinking about them, how science is created, how science is constructed, and howto pass this on to the students. Not just in theoretical terms but in practical terms, that is, that science isnot carried out alone but rather in groups, that discussion originates good ideas, and so on.

(. . .) last year we talked about geological formations, like calcareous rocks and so on. I transmitted a lotof theoretical information to them (. . .) and then we prepared a field trip: (. . .) they went to the computers,created a log book with data, information, stuff they wanted to know, they went on the field trip, collecteddata, came back to the classroom, analysed the data they had, confronted these data with the theoreticalinformation theyd obtained, and thats how you create science ( . . .)

Therefore, Paulo is against teaching Natural Science exclusively based on an ex-planatory stance that, in his opinion, reinforces a stagnant image of science:

(. . .) teaching science in the sense of parroting information, I mean, getting to the classroom and merelychurning out the material (. . .), for instance, teaching science as if it were knowledge that is already fullyknown, theres nothing more to find out, uhm. . . there arent any doubts, only absolute truths, thats theworst way of teaching science. (. . .) Its not about transmitting knowledge; the main thing is that studentsbegin to understand how science is constructed, what goes on in the world of science, ( . . .) what it took toreach certain conclusions.


Paulo identifies several topics of the science programmes as being appropriate fordiscussing controversial issues. For instance, he refers to the Sexuality themes thatenable the discussion of issues concerning birth controland genetic manipulation. Heargues that the contemporary and relevant character of these controversial issues are

good enough reasons to discuss them in the classroom and believes this discussiongrants the construction of decisive knowledge for life in society:

[Controversial issues] are part of our lives, we live with them, encounter them, so its best we have anidea about them, I mean, be informed people and with the information we have, manage to produce ourown opinions about them (. . .). Were going to make citizens participate more and more, be more active,but they can only participate and be more active (. . .) if they have some knowledge about the issues andif theyve got some grasp of that area. (. . .) Nowadays everyones talking about education for citizenshipand I think that education for citizenship is about making individuals intervene more, be more active insociety at large, regarding all that goes on in society.

In his opinion, active citizenship depends on knowledge of the issues related tocontroversial matters. Only through this knowledge may citizens be expected to

actively participate.


14/19


Final Remarks

The teachers who were observed and interviewed believe that scientific and tech-nological breakthroughs represent a source of amazement, progress and concern all

together. Amazement and the notion of progress derive from their impact in termsof a better quality of life; concern is mainly due to the actual or possible negativeside effects regarding individuals, society and the environment related to severaltypes of technology. In these teachers opinions, this duality is evident in issues suchas genetic engineering (namely the introduction of genetically modified living organ-isms into the environment and the intake of transgenic food products), cloning, organtransplants and the co-incineration of toxic waste in cement factories. So it seemsthat these recent controversies have had some impact on the interviewed teachersconceptions about scientific and technological knowledge.

The controversial issues raised by some of these technologies namely the envi-ronmental, social and cultural impact they may have which are made public by themedia, triggered a need in these teachers for a scientific literacy shared by the whole

population. A scientific literacy that ensures the eradication of certain unfoundedfears (resulting from lack of information and technological abuses that took place inthe past) and citizens participation in decision-making and action taking concerningcurrent problems.

However, these conceptions, characterised as they are by the transitory, contro-versial character of science and technology, do not always echo when it comes toclassroom practices. Often these conceptions are not compatible with the image ofscience conveyed in science classes. Although the interviewed teachers refer to thefact that scientific knowledge is transitory and in constant evolution, sometimes theclassroom practices they describe do not convey this idea. For instance, although Fer-nanda identifies certain controversial scientific and technological issues, her practicesstill convey an image of science as an objective, detached activity, strictly rationaland free of doubt or controversy. Her main aims are to carry out the programme

and help students pass their exams with good marks. So she is too concerned withfactual aspects of the curriculum to be interested in or worry about how scienceworks. Her practices reflect an image of science as a catalogue of terms, facts andtheories that the students must memorise and repeat in tests. She uses an explanatoryteaching strategy for the whole class and sometimes certain lab activities to exem-plify. This way, she transmits the idea that citizens just receive science, withoutexerting an active role in terms of decision-making about current options in the fieldof science and technology. This is left to the initiates in the hermetic language ofscience: scientists and teachers.

But other teachers manage to transpose their conceptions about science and sci-ence teaching and learning to their classroom practices. For example, Madalenalooks upon science as a human, complex, dynamic activity, which involves values,

and therefore creates differences in opinion among scientists, according to their be-liefs and principles. She believes these controversies cannot be solved merely on atechnical basis, because they involve other aspects: hierarchies of values, personal


15/19


convenience, financial issues, social pressures, etc. Subsequently, it may happenthat specialists opinions do not coincide, so it is essential to evaluate the infor-mation presented by the parties involved. Therefore, Madalena acknowledges howimportant it is for citizens to participate in accompanying, assessing and control-

ling the course of scientific and technological progress and its implications. So shestrives to prepare her students for collecting, analysing and interpreting informationand arguments, discussing ideas and opinions, making decisions and solving prob-lems. Her practices focus on both the development of skills and the constructionof meaningful knowledge for life. Madalena shows great flexibility in managingthe programme (likewise Rita), demonstrating more concern for the competenciesstudents develop than covering the programmes topics comprehensively. Madalena,Rita and Isabel all use their students doubts and curiosity regarding current themesas starting points for research, discussion and decision-making activities about thepotentialities and limitations of scientific and technological knowledge. Accordingto Madalena and Paulo, these activities are fundamental in Natural Science classes.Besides promoting the development of abilities and the construction of knowledge

meaningful for life and essential for a true citizenship, they also provide them withthe real experience of what science is: a human activity that involves research andsharing, joint analysis and discussion of results and ideas that are often controver-sial.

This study thus shows that recent controversies surrounding scientific and techno-logical issues seem to have had some impact on the classroompractices implementedby the interviewed teachers. All of them acknowledge how important it is to discussthese controversial issues in Natural Science classes, believing they have potential interms of:(a) Constructing a scientific culture that is essential for active citizenship;(b) Constructing meaningful knowledge for life in society, transmitting the idea

that school is not something on the side, dissociated from real life;

(c) Motivating students and stimulating their curiosity;(d) Promoting students intellectual development, for example, by fostering critical

thinking skills;(e) Promoting students moral development, through the clarification of values;(f) Constructing a concept of science as a human activity, influenced by values, and

whose progress clearly depends on the discussion of ideas and opinions;(g) Changing the concept of science as a well-defined subject, with hard and fast

answers and no room for uncertainties, doubts or debate.However, similarly to other studies (Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Lederman, 1998;

Schwartz & Lederman, 2002), certain factors seem to have hindered the transpo-sition of teachers conceptions about science and science teaching and learning totheir classroom practices. Despite the fact that all teachers consider the discussion

of controversial issues in science classes important, several factors seem to renderthis task difficult, particularly in the final school years, in the run-up to univer-sity:


16/19


(a) The length of the programmes resulting from the huge quantity of terms, factsand theories they include makes it hard to accomplish this type of activity;

(b) The fact that the programmes do not include explicitly controversial themes,along with the difficulty some teachers have in identifying appropriate topics or

issues that allow these discussions to take place;(c) Some teachers difficulty in managing the programmes so as to find the time

to undertake activities related to the discussion of controversial issues;(d) The current national exam, which leads teachers to prepare their students for a

type of evaluation that focuses almost entirely on memorisation and very littleon critical analysis;

(e) The fact that some teachers do not highlight these activities in their plans, look-ing upon them as mere informal extra-curricular conversations.

Previous investigations into the relation between teachers conceptions and class-room practice have stressed the curriculum as an important inhibitor of the attentionteachers pay to aspects of the nature of science (Brickhouse, 1990; Duschl & Wrigth,1989; Lederman & Zeidler, 1987). But in our study this factor does not affect all the

teachers. Some reveal a remarkable capacity to (re)interpret the programme so asto approach the themes and carry out the activities they consider to be important.Another finding that is contrary to that suggested by other studies (Lederman, 1999)is that the teachers in our study who show greater consistency between their concep-tions and their practice are not necessarily those who have most teaching experience.A good example of this are the cases of Paulo whose three years as a teacherreveal a high level of consistency and Fernanda who after 39 years reveals littleconsistency between her conceptions and practice.

Therefore, similarly to certain findings obtained by Lederman (1999), these fiveteachers transposition of conceptions about the nature, teaching and learning ofscience to their classroom practices seems to have been strongly influenced by theeducational goals each of them defined and by their previous experiences with sci-entific activity. In the case of Fernanda, it was difficult to perform this transposition

because of the priority she defined for her lessons: to help students obtain good marksin an exam which values the memorisation of a great number of facts, theories, lawsand so on. As for Paulo and Madalena, the transposition they carried out seems tohave been possible thanks to the educational goal they firmly advocate: to providea real experience of what science is. Besides this, Madalenas and Ritas previousexperience as scientific researchers, and consequently, the in-depth knowledge ofthis other world, may have been important in transporting their conceptions aboutthe nature of science to their classes.

Despite the fact that the Portuguese educational reform that took place in the80s already encompassed an underlying educational and curricular philosophy thatstressed formative, personal and social developmental aspects, as well as the Science-Technology-Society interaction, not all classes have felt this impact. Some aspects

seem to hinder the passage from a curricular rhetoric to pedagogic practice, thuslimiting the transition from a culture of science lacking in responsibility and passionto one purporting to respond to human personal and social needs.


17/19


In order to overcome these obstacles it is fundamental that teachers become awareof:1. The impact of what they teach and the way they teach on their students concep-

tions about science and technology. Science is not a single act, rather it is a set of

different actions. Therefore, when science teaching focuses only on one aspect,it may convey distorted images about science and scientists work to students.

2. The existence of a certain curricular leeway that enables the implementationof strategies and an approach to programmed themes that do not refer to themexplicitly.

Particularly this year, which sees the implementation of a new science curriculumthat values discussion activities about current polemic themes, it is important, asLederman (1999) states, to help teachers: (1) internalise the educational importanceof approaching aspects of the nature of science in their classes; (2) develop theteaching competencies that are necessary to transpose knowledge about the natureof science to their practices.

At a time when pseudo-science tends to occupy much of the medias attention,confounding the public and often overlapping the school, discussion activities con-

cerning controversial issues may play an important role in detecting and discussingconceptions about science. As Roth and Stuart (2002) declare, this is not about indoc-trinating students with a specific world vision so as not to question the presumptionson which science is based. Rather, it is about involving students in the reflective ques-tioning of the role of science and scientists in concrete situations that they considerto be personally and socially relevant. Activities of discussion of controversial issuesmay represent an important key in a type of teaching that is not limited to factualaspects but includes social aspects of science related to themes students considercontemporary and important.

Acknowledgments

This project was carried out within the Prodep Programme (Medida 5) and withfinancial backing from IIE, Medida 2 SIQE, Project no. 42/2000. The authors aregrateful to the schools and teachers who participated in this study.

Correspondence: Pedro Reis and Ceclia Galvo, Centro de Investigao em Edu-cao; Faculdade de Cincias da Universidade de Lisboa; Campo Grande C4, r/c,1749-016 Lisboa, PortugalE-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

References

Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R., & Lederman, N. (1998). The nature of science andinstructional practice: Making the unnatural natural. Science Education, 82(4),

417437.Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. (1992). Qualitative research for education. Boston: Allyn

& Bacon.


18/19


Brickhouse, N. (1990). Teachers beliefs about the nature of science and theirrelationship to classroom practice. Journal of Teacher Education, 41(3), 5362.

Brickhouse, N., & Bodner, G. (1992). The beginning science teacher: Classroom nar-ratives of convictions and constraints. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,

29, 471485.Cross, R. T., & Price, R. F. (1996). Science teachers social conscience and the role

of controversial issues in the teaching of science. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 33, 319333.

Czerniak, C. M., & Lumpe, A. T. (1996). Relationship between teacher beliefs andscience education reform. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 7, 247266.

Duschl, R. (2000). Making the nature of science explicit. In R. Millar, J. Leach,& J. Osborn (Eds.), Improving science education: The contribution of research(pp. 187206). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Duschl, R., & Wrigth, E. (1989). A case study of high school teachers decisionmaking models for planning and teaching science. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 26, 467501.

Gallagher, J. J. (1991). Prospective and practicing secondary school science teachersknowledge and beliefs about the philosophy of science. Science Education, 75,121133.

Galvo, C. (Coord.) (2001). Cincias Fsicas e Naturais. Orientaes curricularespara o 3o ciclo do ensino bsico (Physical and Natural Sciences. CurriculumOrientations for the 3rd Cycle of Basic Education). Lisbon, Portugal: Ministry ofEducation, Department of Basic Education.

Galvo, C., & Abrantes, P. (2002). Physical and natural sciences a new curriculumin Portugal. Paper presented at the 2nd International IPN YSEG Symposium,Kiel, Germany. Available at http://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/chik_symposium/sites/index.htm

Gess-Newsome, J., & Lederman, N. (1993). Preservice biology teachers knowl-edge structures as a function of professional teacher education: A year-long

assessment. Science Education, 77, 2545.Hashweh, M. (1996). Effects of science teachers epistemologicalbeliefs in teaching.Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33(1), 4763.

Koulaidis, V., & Ogborn, J. (1995). Science teachers philosophical assumptions:How well do we understand them? International Journal of Science Education,17(3), 273283.

Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.

Lederman, N. (1992). Students and teachers conceptions of the nature of science:A review of the research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 331359.

Lederman, N. (1999). Teachers understanding of the nature of science and class-room practice: Factors that facilitate or impede the relationship. Journal of

Research in Science Teaching, 36(8), 916929.

Lederman, N., & Zeidler, D. (1987). Science teachers conceptions of the natureof science: Do they really influence teaching behavior? Science Education, 71,721734.


19/19


Liakopoulos, M. (2002). Pandoras Box or panacea? Using metaphors to create thepublic representations of biotechnology. Public Understanding of Science, 11,532.

Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: a qualitative approach.

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Monk, M., & Dillon, J. (2000). The nature of scientific knowledge. In R. Millar,

J. Leach, & J. Osborn (Eds.), Good practice in science teaching: What researchhas to say (pp. 7287). Buckingham: Open University Press.

Nelkin, D. (1995). Selling science: How the press covers science and technology.New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Reis, P. (1997). A Promoo do Pensamento atravs da Discusso dos NovosAvanos na rea da Biotecnologia e da Gentica [The promotion of thinkingthrough the discussion of new advances in biotechnology and genetics]. Unpub-lished Master Thesis, University of Lisbon, Faculty of Sciences, Department ofEducation.

Reis, P. (1999). The discussion of biotechnology controversial issues an ex-

ploratory study about its potentialities. Paper presented at the annual meeting ofthe National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST), Boston.Available from ERIC Document Reproduction Service (ED444834) or http://www2.educ.sfu.ca/narstsite/conference/99.htm

Roth, W.-M., & Stuart, L. (2002). Scientific literacy as collective praxis. PublicUnderstanding of Science, 11, 3356.

Schwartz, R., & Lederman, N. (2002). Its the nature of the beast: The influence ofknowledge and intentions on learning and teaching nature of science. Journal of

Research in Science Teaching, 39(3), 205236.Thomas, J. (1997). Informed ambivalence: Changing attitudes to the public under-

standing of science. In R. Levinson & J. Thomas, Science today: Problem orcrisis? (pp. 163172). London: Routledge.

Tobin, K., & Espinet, M. (1989). Impediments to change: Applications of coaching

in high school science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 26(2),105120.

Tobin, K., & McRobbie, C. (1997). Beliefs about the nature of science and theenacted science curriculum, Science & Education, 6, 331354.

Documents

O impacto das controvérsias sócio-científicas nas concepções e práticas de professores de ciências naturais portugueses