[W] Guerra Da Crimeia

8/12/2019 [W] Guerra Da Crimeia

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/w-guerra-da-crimeia 1/19

Crimean War

he Crimean War (pronounced /kra€•mi‚ƒn/ or /kr€-•mi‚ƒn/) (October 1853 „ February 1856)[1][2] was a confli

tween the Russian Empire and an alliance of the French Empire, the British Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and th

ingdom of Sardinia. The war was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influenc

ver territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. Most of the conflict took place on the Crimean Peninsula, but the

ere smaller campaigns in western Anatolia, Caucasus, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea. I

ussia, this war is also known as the "Eastern War" (Russian: €•‚ƒ•„…†‡ ˆ•‰…†, Vostochnaya Voina), and ritain it was also called the "Russian War" at the time.

he Crimean War is known for the logistical and tactical errors during the land campaign on both sides (the nav

de saw a successful Allied campaign which eliminated most of the ships of the Russian Navy in the Black Sea

onetheless, it is sometimes considered to be one of the first "modern" wars as it "introduced technical change

hich affected the future course of warfare," including the first tactical use of railways and the electric telegraph.

is also famous for the work of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole, who pioneered modern nursing practice

hile caring for wounded British soldiers.[4]

he Crimean War was one of the first wars to be documented extensively in written reports and photograph

otably by William Russell (for The Times newspaper) and Roger Fenton respectively. News correspondencaching Britain from the Crimea was the first time the public were kept informed of the day-to-day realities of war

re-battle tensions: "The Eastern Question"

onflict over the Holy Land

s early as 1850, observers, including Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, had been predicting the outbreak of

usso-Turkish War.[5] Russia, as a member of the Holy Alliance, had operated as the "Policeman of Europ

aintaining the balance of power that had been established in the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 and suppressing avolutionary uprisings in Europe. In exchange for providing the armies required to maintain that balance of powe

d suppress the revolutions of 1848 and 1849, Russia had expected Europe to allow it a free hand in settling i

oblems with the Ottoman Empire …the "sick man of Europe." However, Marx and Engels predicted that Englan

d France could not allow Russia this freedom of action. Thus, any Russo-Turkish War would become a Europea

ar.[6] The whole discussion over the future of the Ottoman Empire took on the name of "the Easter

uestion"[7] …a term that would continue in use with reference to the Ottoman Empire/Turkey until the beginnin

the twentieth century.

he immediate chain of events leading to France and Britain declaring war on Russia on 27 March and 28 Marc

54[1] can be traced to the coup d'Štat of 1851 in France. Napoleon III sent his ambassador to the Ottoman Empirattempt to force the Ottomans to recognise France as the "sovereign authority" in the Holy Land.[8] Russ

sputed this newest change in "authority" in the Holy Land. Pointing to two more treaties, one in 1757 and the 177

reaty of K‹Œ‹k Kaynarca, the Ottomans reversed their earlier decision, renouncing the French treaty and insistin

at Russia was the protector of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

apoleon III responded with a show of force, sending the ship of the line Charlemagne to the Black Sea, a violatio

the London Straits Convention.[8] France's show of force, combined with aggressive diplomacy and mone

duced Sultan Abd‹lmecid I to accept a new treaty, confirming France and the Roman Catholic Church as th

preme Christian authority in the Holy Land with control over the Christian holy places and possession of the key

the Church of the Nativity, previously held by the Greek Orthodox Church.[9]

sar Nicholas I then deployed his 4th and 5th Army Corps along the River Danube, and had Count Karl Nesselrod

s foreign minister, undertake talks with the Ottomans. Nesselrode confided to Sir George Hamilton Seymour, th



ritish ambassador in Saint Petersburg:

[The dispute over the holy places] had assumed a new character „ that the acts of injustice towards the

Greek church which it had been desired to prevent had been perpetrated and consequently that now the

object must be to find a remedy for these wrongs. The success of French negotiations at Constantinople

was to be ascribed solely to intrigue and violence „ violence which had been supposed to be the ultima

ratio of kings, being, it had been seen, the means which the present ruler of France was in the habit of

employing in the first instance.[10]

s conflict emerged over the question of the holy places, Nicholas I and Nesselrode began a diplomatic offensiv

hich they hoped would prevent either Britain's or France's interfering in any conflict between Russia and th

ttomans, as well as to prevent their allying together.

Cornet assistant Surgeon Henry Wilkin, 11th Hussars.

He survived the Charge of the Light Brigade. Photo:

Roger Fenton.

Nicholas began courting Britain through Seymour. Nichol

insisted that he no longer wished to expand Imperial Russia, b

that he had an obligation to Christian communities in the Ottoma

Empire. The Tsar next dispatched a diplomat, Prince Menshiko

on a special mission to the Ottoman Sublime Porte. By previou

treaties, the Sultan was committed "to protect the Christia

religion and its churches". Menshikov attempted to negotiate new sened , a formal convention with the power of an internation

treaty, under which the Ottomans would allow to Russia the sam

rights of intervention in the affairs of the Orthodox religion a

recently allowed France in respect of Catholic churches an

churchmen.[11] Such a treaty would allow Russia to control th

Orthodox Church's hierarchy in the Ottoman Empire. Menshiko

arrived at Constantinople on 16 February 1853 on th

steam-powered warship Gromovnik .[12] Menshikov broke protoc

at the Porte when, at his first meeting with the Sultan, hcondemned the Ottomans' concessions to the French. Menshiko

also began demanding the replacement of highly-placed Ottoma

vil servants.

he British embassy at Constantinople at the time was being run by Hugh Rose, chargŠ d'affaires for the Britis

sing his abundant resources within the Ottoman Empire, Rose gathered intelligence on Russian troop movemen

ong the Danube frontier, and became concerned about the extent of Menshikov's mission to the Porte. Rose, usin

s authority as the British representative to the Ottomans, ordered a British squadron of warships to depart early fo

eastern Mediterranean cruise and head for Constantinople.[13] However, Rose's actions were not backed up b

hitley Dundas, the British admiral in command of the squadron, who resented the diplomat for believing he coul

terfere in the Admiralty's business. Within a week, Rose's actions were cancelled.[14] Thus, only the French sent

aval task force to support the Ottomans.



irst hostilities

Battle of Sinope, by Ivan Aivazovsky

t the same time, however, the British government of Prime Minister

ord Aberdeen sent Lord Stratford to replace Colonel Hugh Rose as

voy to the Ottoman Empire.[15] Lord Stratford convinced the Sultan

reject the treaty as compromising the independence of the Turks.

enjamin Disraeli blamed Aberdeen and Stratford's actions for making

ar inevitable, thus starting the process by which the Aberdeen

overnment would be forced to resign over the issue of the war.hortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy, the

sar marched his armies into the Danubian Principalities the

incipalities of Moldavia and Wallachia.[16] Wallachia and Moldavia

ere Turkish/Ottoman-controlled provinces on the banks of the Danube River. Russia had, previously, obtaine

om the Ottoman Empire/Turkey recognition of their role as special guardian of the Orthodox Christians in the

wo provinces. Now, Russia used the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the protection of the Christian sites in th

oly land as a pretext for their occupation of these Danubian provinces. Nicholas believed that the European power

pecially Austria, would not object strongly to the annexation of a few neighbouring Ottoman provinces, especial

ven Russia had assisted Austria's efforts in suppressing the Revolutions of 1848.

Russo-French skirmish during Crimean War

When on 2 July 1853[17] the Tsar sent his troops into the Danubia

Principalities, Britain, hoping to maintain the Ottoman Empire as

bulwark against the expansion of Russian power in Asia, sent a fleet

the Dardanelles, where it joined another fleet sent by France.[18]

At the same time, however, the European powers hoped for

diplomatic compromise. The representatives of the four neutral Gre

Powers … Britain, France, Austria and Prussia … met in Vienn

where they drafted a note which they hoped would be acceptable to thRussians and Ottomans.[19] The note met with the approval of Nichol

I; it was, however, rejected by Abd‹lmecid I, who felt that th

document's poor phrasing left it open to many different interpretation

Britain, France and Austria were united in proposing amendments

mollify the Sultan, but their suggestions were ignored in the court of

Petersburg.

Britain and France set aside the idea of continuing negotiations, b

Austria and Prussia did not believe that the rejection of the propose

amendments justified the abandonment of the diplomatic proces

Nonetheless, the Sultan formally declared war on 23 October 1853

d proceeded to the attack, his armies moving on the Russian army near the Danube later that month.[20] Russia an

e Ottoman empire massed forces on two main fronts, the Caucasus and the Danubian front. The Ottoman lead

mar Pasha managed to pull in some victories on the Danubian front. In the Caucasus, the Ottomans were able t

and ground with the help of Chechen Muslims, led by Imam Shamil.

icholas responded by dispatching warships, which in the Battle of Sinop on 30 November 1853 destroyed a patr

uadron of Ottoman frigates and corvettes while they were anchored at the port of Sinop in northern Anatolia.[2

he destruction of the Ottoman ships provided Britain and France the casus belli for declaring war against Russia, oe side of the Ottoman Empire. By 28 March 1854, after Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to withdra

om the Danubian Principalities, Britain and France formally declared war.[2][22][23]



eace attempts

icholas felt that because of Russian assistance in suppressing the Hungarian revolution of 1848, Austria would sid

ith him, or at the very least remain neutral. Austria, however, felt threatened by the Russian troops. When Britai

d France demanded the withdrawal of Russian forces from the principalities, Austria supported them and, thoug

did not immediately declare war on Russia, it refused to guarantee its neutrality.

ussia then withdrew its troops from the Danubian principalities, which were then occupied by Austria for th

uration of the war. This removed the original grounds for war, but Britain and France continued with hostilitie

etermined to address the Eastern Question by putting an end to the Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire, the alli

oposed several conditions for a peaceful resolution, including:

Russia was to give up its protectorate over the Danubian Principalities;

It was to abandon any claim granting it the right to interfere in Ottoman affairs on behalf of Orthodox Christians

The Straits Convention of 1841 was to be revised;

All nations were to be granted access to the River Danube.

hen the Tsar refused to comply with these Four Points, the Crimean War commenced.

attles

anube campaign

Mahmudiye (1829), participated in numerous important

naval battles, including the Siege of Sevastopol (1854 „ 1855

Map of Crimean War

he Danube campaign opened when the Russians occupied

e Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in

ay 1853, bringing their forces to the north bank of the river

anube. In response, the Ottoman Empire also moved their

rces up to the river. This established strongholds at Vidin in

e west, and Silistra,[24] which was located in the east, near

e mouth of the Danube.he Turkish/Ottoman move up the Danube River was also of

ncern to the Austrians, who moved forces into Transylvania

response. However, the Austrians had begun to fear the

ussians more than the Turks. Indeed, like the British, the

ustrians were now coming to see that an intact Ottoman

mpire was necessary as a bulwark against the Russians.[25]

ccordingly, the Austrians resisted Russian diplomatic

tempts to join the war on the Russian side. Austria remained

utral in the Crimean War.[26]

ollowing the Ottoman ultimatum in September 1853, forces

nder the Ottoman general, Omar Pasha, crossed the Danube

at Vidin and captured Kalafat in October 1853.[27]

multaneously, in the east, the Ottomans crossed the Danube

Silistra and attacked the Russians at Oltenitza. The resulting

attle of Oltenitza was actually the first engagement following the declaration war.[28] The Russian

unterattacked, but were beaten back. On December 31, 1853, the Ottoman forces at Kalafat moved against th



French zouaves and Russian soldiers engaged in

hand-to-hand combat at Malakhov Kurgan

ussian force at Chetatea or Cetate, a small village nine miles

orth of Kalafat.[29] Occurring on January 6, 1854, the Battle

Chatatea was actually the second major battle of the

rimean War after Oltenitza.[30] The battle began when the

ussians made a move to recapture Kalafat. Most of the

attle, however, took place in heavy fighting around Chatatea,

e Russians were driven out of Chetatea.[31] Nonetheless, the

ussians began a siege of Kalafat on January 28, 1854. This

as the last operation before the winter ended campaigning.

owever, the siege of Kalafat would continue until May 1854

hen the Russians lifted the siege. The Ottomans also beat the

ussians in a battle at Caracal.

the spring of 1854 the Russians again advanced, crossing

e Danube River into the Turkish province of Bulgaria.[32] Soon they occupied the whole of the Bulgarian district

obruja.[33] By April 1854, the Russians had reached the lines of Trajan's Wall where they were finally halted. I

e centre the Russian forces crossed the Danube and began to lay siege to Silistra on April 14, 1854. [34] The sieg

ould last until June 23, 1854.[35]

In the east the Russians were dissuaded from attacking Vidin by the presence oe Austrian forces, which had swelled to 280,000 men. On May 28, 1854 a protocol of the Vienna Conference w

gned by Austria and Russia.[36]

ne of the aims of the Russian advance was to encourage the Serbs and Bulgarians living under Ottoman rule

bel; when they showed little interest in doing so, and faced with increasing pressure from Austria, the Russian

ised the siege of Silistra on June 23, 1854, and began to abandon the Principalities.

June 1854 the Allied expeditionary force landed at Varna, but made little advance from their base there. In July

854, the Turks under Omer Pasha crossed the Danube into Wallachia and on July 7, 1854 engaged the Russians

e village of Giurgevo and conquered that village.

[37]

The capture of Giurgevo by the Turks, immediatereatened Bucharest in Romania with capture by the same Turk army. In September, following up on the Russia

treat, the French staged an expedition against the Russian forces still in Dobruja, but this was a failure.

y then Russian withdrawal was complete, except for the fortress towns of northern Dobruja, while their place in th

incipalities was taken by the Austrians, as a neutral peace-keeping force. There was little further action on th

ont after the autumn of 1854 and in September the allied force at Varna moved on to the invasion of the Crimea.

lack Sea theatre

he naval operations of the Crimean war commenced with the dispatch, in summer of 1853, of the French an

ritish fleets sailed to the Black Sea region, in order to support the Ottomans and to dissuade the Russians frocroachment. By June 1853 both fleets were stationed at Besikas bay, outside the Dardanelles. With the Russia

cupation of the Danube Principalities in October they moved to the Bosphorus and in November entered the Blac

ea.

uring this period the Russian Black Sea Fleet was operating against Ottoman coastal traffic betwee

onstantinople and the Caucasus ports, while the Ottoman fleet sought to protect this supply line. The clash came o

0 November 1853 when a Russian fleet attacked an Ottoman force in the harbour at Sinop, and destroyed it.[3

here was little additional naval action until March 1854 when on the declaration of war the British frigate Furio

as fired on outside Odessa harbour. In response the British fleet bombarded the port, causing much damage to th

wn.

June the fleets transported the Allied expeditionary forces to Varna, in support of the Ottoman operations on th

anube; in September they again transported the armies, this time to the Crimea. The Russian fleet during this tim



clined to engage the allies, preferring to maintain a "fleet in being"; this strategy failed when Sevastopol, the ma

ort and where most of the Black Sea fleet was based, came under siege. The Russians were reduced to scuttlin

eir warships as blockships, after stripping them of their guns and men to reinforce batteries on shore. During th

ege, the Russians lost four 110- or 120-gun 3-decker ships of the line, twelve 84-gun 2-deckers and four 60-gu

gates in the Black Sea, plus a large number of smaller vessels.During the rest of the campaign the allied flee

mained in control of the Black Sea, ensuring the various fronts were kept supplied.

April 1855 they supported an invasion of Kerch and operated against Taganrog in the Sea of Azov. In Septembe

ey moved against Russian installations in the Dnieper estuary, attacking Kinburn in the first use of ironclad ship

naval warfare.

rimean campaign

The final assault of the French brought about the

capture of Sevastopol after one of the most

memorable sieges of the 19th century

he Russians evacuated Wallachia and Moldavia. With the evacuation

the Danubian Principalities the immediate cause of war was

ithdrawn. Nonetheless, allied troops landed in the Crimea and

sieged the city of Sevastopol, home of the Tsar's Black Sea Fleet.

he Russian fleet was a threat to the Mediterranean.



Russo-British skirmish during Crimean War

The Crimean campaign opened in September 1854 with the landing o

the allied expeditionary force at Eupatoria, north of Sevastopol. Aft

crossing the Alma River on September 30, 1854,[39] the allies move

on to invest Sevastopol. The Russian army retreated to the interior.

Russian assault on the allied supply base at Balaclava was rebuffed o

October 25, 1854.[40] The Battle of Balaclava is noteworthy to histo

because of the bravery of two British units. The 93rd Highlande

stood solidly against repeated attacks by a larger Russian force.[4

This stand led the 93rd Highlanders to be remembered in history as th

"Thin Red Line." The second British unit to gain immortality in th

Battle of Balaclava was the Light Cavalry Brigade under the comman

of the Earl of Cardigan. An extremely ambiguous order sent the Lig

Brigade on a fruitless and suicidal "charge" into the South Valley

the Balaclava battlefield.[42] The heights around the South Valley w

brimming with Russian artillery which decimated the Light Brigad

during their "charge." Of the original nearly 700-man strength of th

Light Brigade, fewer than 200 men survived the "charge."[42] Th

Light Brigade was memorialised in the famous poem by Alfred Lor

Tennyson called the "Charge of the Light Brigade."

The failure of the British and French to follow up on the Battle

Balaclava led directly to another and much more bloody battle--th

Battle of Inkerman.[43] On November 5, 1854, the Russians attempte

to raise the siege at Sevastopol with an attack against the allies near th

wn of Inkerman which resulted in another victory for the allies.[44]

eanwhile at Sevastopol, the allies had surrounded the city with entrenchments and, in October 1854, unleashed a

l„ out bombardment (the first of many) against the city's defences. Winter, and a deteriorating supply situation o

oth sides, led to a halt in ground operations. Sevastopol remained invested by the allies, while the allied armie

ere hemmed in by the Russian army in the interior.

February 1855 the Russians attacked the allied base at Eupatoria, where an Ottoman army had built up and w

reatening Russian supply routes. The battle saw the Russians defeated, and led to a change in command. On th

lied side the emphasis of the siege shifted to the right-hand sector of the lines, against the fortifications o

alakoff hill. In March there was fighting over the fort at Mamelon, located on a hill in front of the Malakof

everal weeks of fighting saw little change in the front line, and the Mamelon remained in Russian hands.

April the allies staged a second all-out bombardment, leading to an artillery duel with the Russian guns, but nound assault followed. In May the allies landed a force at Kerch, to the east, opening another front in the Crimea

attempt to outflank the Russian army. The landings were successful, but the force made little progress thereafte

June a third bombardment was followed by a successful attack on the Mamelon, but a follow-up assault on th

alakoff failed with heavy losses. During this time the garrison commander, Admiral Nakhimov, suffered a fat

ullet wound to the head and died on 30 June 1855.

August the Russians again made an attack on the base at Balaclava. The resulting battle of Tchernaya was a defe

r the Russians, who suffered heavy casualties. September saw the final assault. On 5 September anothe

ombardment (the sixth) was followed by an assault on 8 September resulting in the capture of the Malakoff by th

ench, and the collapse of the Russian defences. The city fell on 9 September 1855, after about a year-long siege.

t this point both sides were exhausted, and there were no further military operations in the Crimea before the onse

winter.



zov Campaign

spring 1855, the allied British „ French commanders decided to send an Anglo-French naval squadron into th

zov Sea to undermine Russian communications and supplies to besieged Sevastopol. On May 12, 185

ritish „ French warships entered the Kerch Strait and destroyed the coast battery of the Kamishevaya Bay. On 2

ay 1855 the gunboats and armed steamers attacked the seaport of Taganrog, the most important hub in proximit

Rostov on Don. The vast amounts of food, especially bread, wheat, barley, and rye that were amassed in the ci

ter the outbreak of war were prevented from being exported.

Bombardment of Taganrog from a British raftduring the first siege attempt

he Governor of Taganrog, Yegor Tolstoy, and lieutenant-general Ivan

rasnov refused the ultimatum, responding that "Russians never

rrender their cities". The British „ French squadron bombarded

aganrog for 6 hours and landed 300 troops near the Old Stairway in

owntown Taganrog, but they were thrown back by Don Cossacks and

volunteer corps.

July, 1855 the allied squadron tried to go past Taganrog to Rostov

n Don, entering the Don River through the Mius River. On 12 July

855 HMS Jasper grounded near Taganrog thanks to a fisherman who

positioned the buoys into shallow waters. The Cossacks captured theunboat with all of its guns and blew it up. The third siege attempt was

ade August 19 „ 31, 1855, but the city was already fortified and the

uadron could not approach close enough for landing operations. The allied fleet left the Gulf of Taganrog o

eptember 2, 1855, with minor military operations along the Azov Sea coast continuing until late autumn 1855.

aucasus theatre

he Caucasus was already a scene of confrontation for the Russians and the Ottomans, as both had sought to exten

eir influence in the region.

ussian expansion into the region had been resisted by local peoples in Chechnya, Dagestan, and the other mounta

eas. In the region the Russians were opposed by Muridists of the Caucasian Imamate, but were grudging

pported by Circassians, Georgians and Kakhetians, who valued their independence, but were at odds with the

ighbours.

1853 the leader of the mountain peoples, Imam Shamil, staged an insurrection against the occupying Russia

rces. His forces fought the Russians at Zaqatala, and Meselderg, but were beaten back by the Russian forces. I

854 he tried again, advancing on Tiflis before being defeated at Shulda.

summer of 1853 the Ottoman forces held strongholds at Kars, Batum, and Erzerum, with lesser forts at Ardaha

d Bayazid. The Ottoman forces planned an invasion of Georgia but after some initial success were unable aintain this and were forced to retreat. Russian forces in the region were spread thinly, due to the demands o

olding down the region against insurrection, but during 1853 were reinforced. In September 1853 there were

umber of clashes between Russian and Ottoman forces. Additionally, there were later battles at Fort St. Nicolas

ctober 1853 and twice at Alexandropol in October 1853 and again in December 1853. On November 26, 1853, th

ussians beat the Ottoman armed forces at the Battle of Akhatzikh.[45]

the spring of 1854 the Russians planned an invasion of Ottoman territory, fighting inconclusive battles at th

holok river and Kurekdere. Following this the invasion came to nothing and there was little further action that yea

1855 both sides returned to the offensive; after initial manoeuvrings the Russians staged an assault on Kars, whicas beaten back with losses. However they then settled down to a siege which was successful, Kars surrendering i

ovember 1855. Meanwhile the Ottoman army at Batum invaded Georgia, but after an inconclusive clash at th

gur river the offensive collapsed and they retreated to Batum.



1856 the Russians had plans to advance on Erzurum, but the peace of Paris in March 1856 put an end to furth

perations.

altic theatre

he Baltic was a forgotten theatre of the Crimean War. The popularisation of events elsewhere had overshadowe

e significance of this theatre, which was close to Saint Petersburg, the Russian capital. In April 1854 a

nglo-French fleet was sent into the Baltic to attack the Russian sea port of Kronstadt and the Russian fleet statione

ere.[46] In August 1854 the combined English and French fleet returned to Kronstadt for another attempt. Howeve

om the beginning, the Baltic campaign remained a stalemate. The outnumbered Russian Baltic Fleet confined i

ovements to the areas around its fortifications. At the same time, British and French commanders Sir Charle

apier and Alexandre Ferdinand Parseval-Deschenes …although they led the largest fleet assembled since th

apoleonic Wars …considered the Sveaborg fortress too well-defended to engage. Thus, shelling of the Russia

atteries was limited to two attempts in the summers of 1854 and 1855, and initially, the attacking fleets limited the

tions to blockading the Russian trade in the Gulf of Finland. [47] Naval attacks on other ports, such as the ones

ogland were more successful.[48] Additionally, they conducted raids on less fortified sections of the Finnish coast.

Bombardment of Bomarsund during the Crimean

War, after William Simpson

Russia was dependent on imports for both the domestic economy an

the supply of her military forces and the blockade seriousundermined the Russian economy. Raiding by allied British an

French fleets destroyed forts on the Finnish coast including the new

constructed Bomarsund on the Žland Islands which was raided on Ju

3 through July 16, 1854,[49] and Fort Slava. Other such attacks we

not so successful, and the poorly planned attempts to take Hanko, [5

Ekens, Kokkola, and Turku were repulsed.

The burning of tar warehouses and ships in Oulu and Raahe led

international criticism and, in Britain, MP Thomas Gibson demande

in the House of Commons that the First Lord of the Admiralty explaisystem which carried on a great war by plundering and destroying the property of defenceless villagers".

1855, the Western Allied Baltic Fleet tried to destroy heavily defended Russian dockyards at Sveaborg outsid

elsinki. More than 1,000 enemy guns tested the strength of the fortress for two days. Despite the shelling, th

ilors of the 120-gun ship Rossiya, led by Captain Viktor Poplonsky, defended the entrance to the harbour. Th

llies fired over twenty thousand shells but were unable to defeat the Russian batteries. A massive new fleet of mo

an 350 gunboats and mortar vessels was prepared, but before the attack was launched, the war ended.

"Bombardment of the Solovetsky Monastery in

the White Sea by the Royal Navy". A lubok

(popular print) from 1868

art of the Russian resistance was credited to the deployment of newly

eated blockade mines. Perhaps the most influential contributor to thevelopment of naval mining was inventor and civil engineer

mmanuel Nobel, the father of Alfred Nobel. Immanuel helped the war

fort for Russia by applying his knowledge of industrial explosives

ch as nitroglycerin and gunpowder. Modern naval mining is said to

ate from the Crimean War: "Torpedo mines, if I may use this name

ven by Fulton to self-acting mines underwater, were among the

ovelties attempted by the Russians in their defenses about Cronstadt

d Sevastopol", as one American officer put it in 1860.[51]

White Sea theatre



autumn 1854 a squadron of three British warships led by HMS Miranda left the Baltic for the White Sea, whe

ey shelled Kola (which was utterly destroyed) and the Solovki. Their attempt to storm Arkhangelsk prove

nsuccessful.

acific theatre

inor naval skirmishes also occurred in the Far East, where at Petropavlovsk on the Kamchatka Peninsula a stron

ritish and French Allied squadron including HMS Pique under Rear Admiral David Price and a French force und

ounter-Admiral Auguste Febvrier Despointes besieged a smaller Russian force under Rear Admiral Yevfim

utyatin. In September 1854 an Allied landing force was beaten back with heavy casualties, and the Allies withdrew

he Russians escaped under the cover of snow in early 1855 after Allied reinforcements arrived in the region.

he Anglo-French forces in the Far East also made several small landings on Sakhalin and Urup, one of the Kur

lands.[52]

ardinian involvement

amillo di Cavour, under orders by Victor Emmanuel II of the Kingdom of Sardinia (also known as Piedmont), sen

expeditionary corps of 15,000 soldiers, commanded by General Alfonso La Marmora, to side with French an

ritish forces during the war. This was an attempt at gaining the favour of the French especially when the issue oniting Italy under the Sardinian throne would become an important matter. The deployment of Sardinian troops t

e Crimea, and the gallantry shown by them in the Battle of the Chernaya (August 16, 1855) and in the siege o

evastopol, allowed the Kingdom of Sardinia to be among the participants at the peace conference at the end of th

ar, where it could address the issue of the Risorgimento to other European powers.

reek rebellions

Greek battalion during the siege of Sevastopol

hen the Crimean War broke out, many Greeks felt that it was an

pportunity to regain Ottoman-occupied Greek territory to add to the

cently liberated territory of the independent Kingdom of Greece. The

reek War of Independence (1821 „ 1829) was still fresh in people's

inds, as well as the Russian intervention that had helped secure

reek independence. Just before the Greek War of Independence a

ader of Filiki Eteria, Alexander Ypsilantis, and his brother Demetrios

psilantis had led Russian troops in to Moldavia and Wallachia and

-ordinated the preparations for uprisings throughout

ttoman-occupied Greece which they later led. Moreover, Greeks have

ways considered Orthodox Christian Russia as an ally and viewed the Crimean War as a grave injustice again

ussia and any support of the Ottoman Empire a grave threat to Greece's recent independence.

lthough the official Greek state, under severe diplomatic and military pressure from the British and French (allie

the Ottomans), which included a naval blockade and the occupation of the country's main port of Piraeu

frained from actively entering the conflict, a number of uprisings broke out in Albania in January 1854 [53] an

on spread to Epirus, Thessaly, and Macedonia.[54] A revolt also broke out in Crete, with support from individua

d groups within independent Greece and Constantinople. However, all Greek revolts in the Turkish provinces we

on suppressed. A small Greek volunteer force under Colonel Panos Koronaios went to Russia and fought durin

e Siege of Sevastopol. However, more Greek nationals fought in the Crimean War with the "Greek Battalion o

alaklava" which had been in the ranks of the Russian army since the first Russo-Turkish war (1768 „ 1774).



nd of the war

issatisfaction with the conduct of the war was growing with the public in Britain and in other countries. O

unday, January 21, 1855, a "snowball riot" occurred in Trafalgar Square near St. Martin-in-the-Field in which 1,50

ople gathered to protest the war by pelting busses, cabs and pedestrians with snow balls. [55] When the polic

tervened, the snowballs were directed at them. The riot was finally put down by troops and police acting wi

uncheons.[55] Public dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war was aggravated by reports of fiascoes like th

harge of the Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava led to questions being raised in parliament about the war. O

hursday, February 1, 1855, Edward Law, Earl of Ellenbrough, a Tory member of parliament, pushed the Aberdeeoalition government for an accounting of all soldier, cavalry and sailors sent to the Crimea and accurate figures

the number of casualities that had been sustained by all British armed forces in the Crimea. [56] Following this tw

ore Tory members of Parliament, Charles Gordon-Lennox, Duke of Richmond and Charles Philip Yorke, Earl

ardwicke, raised questions about the war and about the Battle of Balaclava in particular. These Tory members we

art of the protectionist wing of the Tory party and, thus, may have had ulterior motives for posing the

mbarrassing questions to the Aberdeen government. George Hamilton Gordon, Earl of Aberdeen was a leader of th

eelites. The Peelites had been Tories but had sided with the Whigs on free trade issues and especially the repeal o

e protectionist "Corn Laws" which damaged the material interests of the landed aristocracy represented by the To

arty.

[57]

The protectionist wing of the Tory party could not forgive the Peelites for this rank betrayal of theterests and now sought opportunities to bring down the Coalition (Whig-Peelite) government with the leadin

eelite-Aberdeen-acting as prime minister. The war was to become the scapegoat in the continuation of the batt

tween free trade and protectionism.[57]

more sincere attempt to question British involvement in the war was introduced in Parliament on January 2

855, in the form of a bill authored by John Arthur Roebuck, a radical member of the Parliament, asking for a

vestigation by Parliament into the conduct of the war. Parliament passed this bill with 305 in favour and 14

ainst.[58] Aberdeen chose to view the vote on this bill as a "vote of no confidence" on the Coalition governmen

ccordingly, Aberdeen resigned as prime minister on January 30, 1855, and Lord Palmerston was asked by Quee

ictoria to form a new government. This time the Whigs formed a government with the help of the Irish members arliament. Roebuck eventually became the chairman of the select committee conducting the investigation.

eace negotiations began in 1856 under Nicholas I's son and successor, Alexander II, through the Congress of Pari

urthermore, the Tsar and the Sultan agreed not to establish any naval or military arsenal on the Black Sea coas

he Black Sea clauses came at a tremendous disadvantage to Russia, for it greatly diminished the naval threat

osed to the Ottomans. Moreover, all of the Great Powers pledged to respect the independence and territori

tegrity of the Ottoman Empire.

he Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when France was defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War

70 „ 1871. While Prussia and several other German states united to form a powerful German Empire, the Emper

the French, Napoleon III, was deposed to permit the formation of a Third French Republic. During his reig

apoleon III, eager for the support of Great Britain, had opposed Russia over the Eastern Question. Russia

terference in the Ottoman Empire, however, did not in any significant manner threaten the interests of Franc

hus, France abandoned its opposition to Russia after the establishment of a republic. Encouraged by the decision

e French and supported by the German minister Otto von Bismarck, Russia renounced the Black Sea clauses of th

eaty agreed to in 1856. As Great Britain alone could not enforce the clauses, Russia once again established a fle

the Black Sea.

aving abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war, which contribute

its defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and its loss of influence in most German-speaking lands. With Francow hostile to Germany, allied with Russia, and Russia competing with the newly re-named Austro-Hungaria

mpire for an increased role in the Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, the foundations were in place fo

eating the diplomatic alliances that would lead to World War I.



otwithstanding the guarantees to preserve Ottoman territories specified in the Treaty of Paris, Russia, exploitin

ationalist unrest in the Ottoman states in the Balkans and seeking to regain lost prestige, once again declared war o

e Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877. In this later Russo-Turkish War the states of Romania, Serbia an

ontenegro achieved independence and Bulgaria its autonomy.

he Crimean War was one of the main causes of the demise of The Concert of Europe, the balance of power that ha

ominated Europe since the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and which had included France, Russia, and The Britis

mpire.

Criticisms and reform

A tinted lithograph by William Simpson illustrating conditions of the

sick and injured in Balaklava

he Crimean War was notorious for the military and

gistical immaturity of the British army. However, it

ghlighted the work of women who served as army

urses. War correspondents for newspapers reported

e scandalous treatment of wounded soldiers in the

sperate winter that followed and prompted the work

Florence Nightingale, Mary Seacole, Frances

argaret Taylor and others and led to the introductionmodern nursing methods.

he Crimean War also saw the first tactical use of

ilways and other modern inventions such as the

ectric telegraph, with the first 'live' war reporting to

he Times by William Howard Russell. Some credit

ussell with prompting the resignation of the sitting

ritish government through his reporting of the

cklustre shape of the British forces deployed to the Crimea. Additionally, the telegraph reduced the independenc

British overseas possessions from their commanders in London due to such rapid communications. Newspap

adership informed public opinion in the United Kingdom and France as never before.[59] It was the first Europea

ar to be photographed.

he war also employed modern military tactics, such as trenches and blind artillery fire. The use of the MiniŠ ball f

ot, coupled with the rifling of barrels, greatly increased Allied rifle range and damage.

he British Army system of sale of commissions came under great scrutiny during the war, especially in connectio

ith the Battle of Balaclava, which saw the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade. This scrutiny eventually led to th

olition of the sale of commissions.

he Crimean War was a contributing factor in the Russian abolition of serfdom in 1861: Alexander II saw th

ilitary defeat of the Russian serf-army by free troops from Britain and France as proof of the need f

mancipation.[60] The Crimean War also led to the eventual realisation by the Russian government of i

chnological inferiority, namely in its military practices as well as its military weapons.[61]

eanwhile, the Russian military medicine saw dramatic progress: N. I. Pirogov, known as the father of Russian fie

rgery, developed the use of anaesthetics, plaster casts, enhanced amputation methods and five-stage triage

rimea, among other things.

he war also led to the establishment of the Victoria Cross in 1856 (backdated to 1854), the British Army's fir

niversal award for valour.



Chronology of major battles of the war

Battle of Sinop, 30 November 1853

Siege of Petropavlovsk, 30 „ 31 August 1854, on the Pacific coast

Battle of Alma, 20 September 1854

Siege of Sevastopol, 25 September 1854 to 8 September 1855

Battle of Balaclava, 25 October 1854 (see also Charge of the Light Brigade)

Battle of Inkerman, 5 November 1854

Battle of Eupatoria, 17 February 1855Battle of Chernaya River (aka "Traktir Bridge"), 25 August 1855

Sea of Azoff naval campaign, May to November 1855

Siege of Kars, June to 28 November 1855

FitzRoy Somerset, Omar Pasha and Mikhail

Dmitrievich Gorchakov

rominent military commanders

Russian commanders

Prince Mikhail Dmitriyevich Gorchakov

Count and Namestnik Ivan Feodorovich Paskevich Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov

General Eduard Ivanovich Totleben

Prince Aleksandr Sergeyevich Menshikov

French commanders

Marshal Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud

Marshal FranŒois Certain Canrobert

Marshal Aimable PŠlissier

British commanders

James Thomas Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan

Fitzroy Somerset, 1st Lord Raglan

Sir Thomas James Harper

Sir Edmund Lyons (later 1st Lord Lyons)

Ottoman commanders

General Abd‹lkerim Nadir Pasha

General Omar Pasha

Kingdom of Sardinia commander

General Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora

ast veterans

Yves Prigent (1833 „ 1938). Was in French Navy.[62]

Charles Nathan (1834 „ 1934). Last French soldier, also saw action in Italy, Syria, Mexico and the Franco-Prussia

War.[62]

Edwin Hughes (1830 „ 1927). Last survivor of the Charge of the Light Brigade.[63]

Colonel Rookes Evelyn Bell Crompton (1845 „ 1940). Repeatedly claimed that he was a cadet on HMS Dragon

during



Crimean War Memorial at Waterloo Place, St James's,

London

Chapel in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, commemorating

the Siege of Petropavlovsk in 1854

the siege of Sevastopol, earning two campaign medals before

his twelfth birthday. This is absolutely untrue, because he was

never enrolled in the Navy and only visited the Crimea in

mid-May to mid-July, 1856, when nobody was entitled to the

award of the British Crimea Medal.[64]

Timothy the Tortoise (1839 „ 2004). The naval mascot of HMS

Queen[65]

n culture

"The Charge of the Light Brigade" by Alfred, Lord Tennyson

depicted a brave but disastrous cavalry charge during the Battle

of Balaclava.

Iron Maiden song "The Trooper" is about the Battle of

Balaclava in 1854 during the Crimean War, and is at least

partially based upon Alfred Lord Tennyson's poem "The

Charge of the Light Brigade."

Leo Tolstoy wrote a few short sketches on the Siege of Sevastopol, collected in The Sebastopol Sketches. The stories

detail the lives of the Russian soldiers and citizens in

Sevastopol during the siege. Because of this work, Tolstoy has

been called the world's first war correspondent.

Jack Archer: A Tale of the Crimea by G.A. Henty, 1883, a

historical novel, details the adventures of two British

midshipmen in the Crimean War.

The events of the Crimean War are depicted in the 1973 novel

Flashman at the Charge in which the eponymous antihero

participates in the battles of Sevastopol and Balaclava.

References

otes

Kinglake (1863:354)

Sweetman (2001:7)

Royle. Preface

Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

"Review" published in the Neue Rheinische Zeitung Politische-€konomische

Revue No. 2 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick

Engels: Volume 10(International Publishers: New York, 1978) p. 259.

"Review" published in the neue Rheinische Zeitung Ploitische-€konomische Revue contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and

Frederick Engels: Volume 10, p. 260.

Karl Marx, "British Politics--Disraeli--The Refugees--Mazzini in London--Turkey" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and

Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p. 5.Royle. Pg 19

Royle. Pg 20

0]0] Royle. Pg 21



1] Jelavich, Barbara (2004). Russia's Balkan Entanglements, 1806 € 1914. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 118 „ 122.

ISBN 9780521522502.

2] Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "British Politics--Disraeli--The Refugees--Mazzini in London--Turkey" contined in the Collected Works

Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12 (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 4-5.

3] Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "British Politics--Disraeli--The Refugees--Mazzini in London--Turkey" contained in the Collected works

of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p. 5.

4] Karl Marx, "Turkey and Russia--Connivance of the Aberdeen Ministry with Russia--The Budget--Tax on Newspaper

Supplements--Parliamentary Corruption" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p. 145.

5] See note 119 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Fredereick Engels: Volume 12, p. 654.

6] Frederick Engels, "The Turkish Question" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Mrx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p. 24.

7]7] Kinglake (1863:195)8] Karl Marx, "Turkey and Russia--Connivance of the Aberdeen Ministry with Russia--The Budget--Tax on Newspaper

Supplements--Parliamentary Corruption" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p. 143.

9] Karl Marx, "The Quadruple Convention--England and the War" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels:

Volume 12, pp. 527-530.

0] Encyclop•dia Britannica: Crimean War . 1994.

1] Karl Marx, "The Russian Victory--Position of England and France" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels:

Volume 12, p. 536 and also see note 360 located on page 690 in the same volume.

2] Correspondent (28 March 1854). "In the House of Lords". The Morning Chronicle: p. 4.

3] Kinglake (1863:463 „ 4)

4] Frederick Engels, "The Siege of Silistria" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13 (International

Publishers: New York, 1980) pp. 234-245.5] Karl Marx, "Excitment in Italy--The Events in Spain--The Position of the German States--British Magistrates" contained in the Collected

Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, pp. 296-297.

6] Frederick Engels "The War on the Danube" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 281.

7] Frederick Engels, "The Progress of the Turkish War" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p.

450.

8] Fredereick Engels, "The Progress of the Turkish War" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p

450.

9] Frederick Engels, "The Last Battle of Europe" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p. 479.

0] Frederick Engels, "The Last Battle in Europe" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p. 579 an

see note 390 on page 693 of the same volume.

1] See note 390 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p. 693.2] Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The European War" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p

129.

3] Frederick Engels, "Position of the Armies in Turkey" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p.

150.

4] Frederick Engels, "The Siege of Silistra" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 242.

5] Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Russian Retreat" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13,

pp. 254-256.

6] See note 158 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 690.

7] Karl Marx, "A Congress at Vienna--The Austrian Loan--Proclamations of Dulce and O'Donnell--The Ministerial Crisis in Britain" contain

in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 303.

8] Karl Marx, "Debates in Parliament" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13 (InternationalPublishers: New York, 1980) p. 12.

9] Frederick Engels, "The News from the Crimea" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, pp.

477-479.

0] Frederick Engels, "The War in the East" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, pp. 521-527.

1] Frederick Engels, "The War in the East" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 523.



4] Frederick Engels, "The Battle of Inkerman" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, pp. 528-535

5] Frederick Engels, "Progress of the Turkish War" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 12, p. 547.

6] Frederick Engels, "The Attack on the Russian Forts" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p.

347.

7] Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "State of the Russian War" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume

13, p. 251.

8] Frederick Engels, "The War" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, 201.



9] Frederick Engels, "The Capture of Bomarsund: Article I" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13

p. 378.

0] Karl Marx, "The Actions of the Allied Fleet" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 463.

1] Mining in the Crimean War (http:/ / www.exwar.org/ Htm/ 8000PopH2.htm)

2] Mikhail Vysokov: A Brief History of Sakhalin and the Kurils (http:/ / www.sakhalin.ru/ Engl/ Region/ history.htm): Late 19th (http:/ /

www.sakhalin.ru/ Engl/ Region/ book/ late_19th.htm)

3] Note 31 contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 674.

4] Karl Marx, "Parliamentary Debates of February 22--Pozzo Di Borgo's Dispatch--The Policy of the Western Powers" contained in the

Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 32.

5] Karl Marx, "The Aims of the Negotiations--Polemic Against Prussia--A Snowball Riot" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx an

Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 599.6] Karl Marx, "The Opening of Parliament" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 600.

7] Karl Marx, "The Commercial Crisis in Britain" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 586.

8] Karl Marx, "Fall of the Aberdeen Ministry" contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 13, p. 631.

9]9] Ian V. Hogg, The British Army in the 20th Century (London: Ian Allan, 1985), 11. ISBN 0-7110-1505-8

0] Moon, David (2001). The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, 1762€ 1907 . Harlow, England: Pearson Education. pp. 49 „ 55. ISBN 058229486X

1] "STMMain" (http:/ / www.russianwarrior.com/ STMMain.htm). Russianwarrior.com. . Retrieved 2011-11-29.

2] "dernier vŠtŠran de la guerre de crimŠe et du si’ge de sŠbastopole" (http:/ / derniersveterans.free.fr/ crimee.html). Derniersveterans.free.fr.

. Retrieved 2011-11-29.

3] "Hall of Fame: Balaclava Ned" (http:/ / news.bbc.co.uk/ local/ northeastwales/ hi/ people_and_places/ history/ newsid_8170000/ 8170593.

stm). BBC News. 27 July 2009. . Retrieved 30 April 2010.

4] "IET Archives, history, biographies, online exhibitions and research guides" (http:/

/

www.theiet.org/

about/

libarc/

archives/

biographies/ crompton.cfm). The IET. . Retrieved 2011-11-29.

5] (http:/ / www.encyclopedia.com/ doc/ 1G1-115062480.html)

ibliography

Bridge and Bullen, The Great Powers and the European States System 1814€ 1914, (Pearson Education: London

2005

Bamgart, Winfried The Crimean War, 1853€ 1856 (2002) Arnold Publishers ISBN 0-340-61465-X

Figes, Orlando, Crimea: The Last Crusade (2010) Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9704-0

Ponting, Clive The Crimean War (2004) Chatto and Windus ISBN 0-7011-7390-4Pottinger Saab, Anne The Origins of the Crimean Alliance (1977) University of Virginia Press ISBN

0-8139-0699-7

Puryear, Vernon J. "New Light on the Origins of the Crimean War," Journal of Modern History Vol. 3, No. 2

(Jun., 1931), pp. 219-234 in JSTOR (http:/ / www.jstor.org/ stable/ 1871715)

Rich, Norman Why the Crimean War: A Cautionary Tale (1985) McGraw-Hill ISBN 0-07-052255-3

Royce, Simon The Crimean War and its place in European Economic History (2001) University of London Pres

ISBN 0-3825-2868-6

Royle, Trevor Crimea: The Great Crimean War, 1854€ 1856 (2000) Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 1-4039-6416-5

Schroeder, Paul W. Austria, Great Britain, and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (1972) Cornell University Press ISBN 0-8014-0742-7

Schmitt, Bernadotte E. "The Diplomatic Preliminaries of the Crimean War," American Historical Review, Vol.

25, No. 1 (Oct., 1919), pp. 36-67 in JSTOR (http:/ / www.jstor.org/ stable/ 1836373)

Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Master in Europe: 1848-1918 (1954)

Wetzel, David The Crimean War: A Diplomatic History (1985) Columbia University Press ISBN 0-88033-086-4



istoriography and memory

Gooch, Brison D. "A Century of Historiography on the Origins of the Crimean War," American Historical Revie

Vol. 62, No. 1 (Oct., 1956), pp. 33-58 in JSTOR (http:/ / www.jstor.org/ stable/ 1848511)

Markovits, Stefanie. The Crimean War in the British Imagination (Cambridge University Press: 2009) 287 pp.

Russell, William Howard, "The Crimean War: As Seen by Those Who Reported It". (Louisiana State University

Press, 2009) ISBN 978-0-8071-3445-0

ontemporary sources

The Annual register of world events: Volume 96 (1855), highly detailed coverage of events in British Empire and

worldwide full text online (http:/ / books.google.com/ books?id=t2EgAQAAMAAJ)

Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea, (nine volumes, London, 1863 „ 87)

Russell, The War in the Crimea, 1854€ 56 , (London, 1855 „ 56)

xternal links

A small peace celebration: 29 May 1856 (http:/ / boar.org.uk/ abiwxo3Bournedoc001.htm)

Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University Library (http:/ / dl.lib.brown.edu/ libweb/ collections/

askb/ ) Prints, drawings, and watercolours

Austria Chronology Crimean War (http:/ / www.datesofhistory.com/ Crimean-War-Austria.general.html)

Commander W. Gordon, R.N. (H.M.S Sansapareil). Balaclava and the Sevastopol Inquiry, 1855 (http:/ / www.

allworldwars.com/ Balaclava and the Sevastopol Inquiry.html)

Crimean War Research Society. (http:/ / www.crimeanwar.org/ )

France Chronology Crimean War (http:/ / www.datesofhistory.com/ Crimean-War-France.general.html)

Great Britain Chronology Crimean War (http:/ / www.datesofhistory.com/ Crimean-War-Great-Britain.general.

html)

Immediate causes of the War detailed in context. (http:/

/

www.victorianweb.org/

history/

crimea/

immcauses.html)

Italy Chronology Crimean War (http:/ / www.datesofhistory.com/ Crimean-War-Italy.general.html)

Loading and Firing British Muskets in the Crimean War 1854 „ 1856 (http:/ / www.militaryheritage.com/

enfield1853.htm)

Punch Sketches on Crimean War (http:/ / www.john-leech-archive.org.uk/ keyword/ crimean-war.htm)

Russia Chronology Crimean War (http:/ / www.datesofhistory.com/ Crimean-War-Russia.general.html)

The Army Service of Hastings McAllister (http:/ / www.closebracket.com/ genealogy/ hastingsintro.html)

The Baltic Campaign of the Crimean War (http:/ / www.britishembassy.gov.uk/ servlet/

Front?pagename=OpenMarket/

Xcelerate/

ShowPage&

c=Page&

cid=1044360079988)The Charge of the Light Brigade (1968 Movie) (http:/ / www.imdb.com/ title/ tt0062790/ )

The Tunisian Army in the Crimean War: A Military Mystery (http:/ / www.militaryhistoryonline.com/

19thcentury/ articles/ tunisiacrimea.aspx) by Dr. Andrew McGregor

Turkey Chronology Crimean War (http:/ / www.datesofhistory.com/ Crimean-War-Turkey.general.html)

The Crimean War (http:/ / histclo.com/ essay/ war/ war-crimea.html)



Article Sources and Contributorsmean War Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480602866 Contributors: -Inanna-, -js-, .marc., 0lgiles, 15lsoucy, 2812, 2fort5r, 42“ South, 6afraidof7, 9693, A-Bowers, A.g, A2Kafir, ANGELUS, Aatomic1, Abberley2, Abune, Acad Ronin, Acastren, Ace of Spades, Achmelvic, Adam Bishop, Aenausth, Aggamemnon, AgnosticPreachersKid, Ajraddatz, Alacri12, Alex.muller, Alex202, Alexander Gerashchenko, Alexandra lb, Alexikoua, AlexiusHoratius, [email protected], Allstarecho, Alma Pater, Alsandro, Altau, Altenmann, Ammiller91,araug, Andonic, Andyp787, Angel Cupid, Angusmclellan, AnonEMouse, Anotherclown, Antique Military Rifles, Anton Kos, Aparviz27, Ardfern, Artemis Dread, Arturo57, Ash sul,anasios Tsiouras, Aua, Auror, Austin Hair, Austriacus, Autozavod, Awiseman, Axeman89, BadLeprechaun, Bakeysaur99, Balcer, Balthazarduju, BaomoVW, Baristarim, Bart133, Basawalore My Ken, Belovedfreak, Berkut, Betsythedevine, Bilbobee, Bill Conn, Billy Hathorn, Binksternet, Black Falcon, BlackSea, Blanche of King's Lynn, Blemmyes, Bobblewik, Bobmack89

bo192, Bogdan, Boguslavmandzyuk, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Boothy443, Borislav, Bowlhover, BozMo, Brickie, Bricklayer, Britannicus, Bruce Hall, Bskaat, Buckshot06, CCMoir, CGP,ES, Calle Widmann, Callumakirk, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Carl Logan, Carlen.lyle, Casper2k3, Catgut, CeeGee, Chaldean, Chestnut ah, Chills42, Chowbok, Christiantorybuff, Cinik, Citicat, CkDead, Clarityfiend, ClaudeMuncey, CohenTheBavarian, Comatose51, Cookiehead, CopperKettle, Cormag100, Courcelles, Cplakidas, CrazyChemGuy, Crazyedddema, Cretanforever, Cunibertus, Cwiki, Cyde, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBaba, DDima, DITWIN GRIM, DJWiteout, DV8 2XL, Damacguy, Damoman, Danchaingain, Dancon7, Danielnlan, Dannymx, Danski14, DarWin1394, Darkspots, DarthBinky, Davemcarlson, David Schaich, DavidLevinson, Dbertoncini, Dcatchpole, Dcheng, Deadkid dk, Deejay666, Deltabeignet,

n fjttrade ankan, Denny, Derim Hunt, Dewritech, Dgoldthorpe, Diannaa, Differentgravy, Dimadick, Dionysiaca, Dirubin, Discospinster, Dnalrom123, Dominic, DonaldDuck, Doncsecz,nfbreed, Dreadstar, Durova, ELDRAS, ESkog, Eagleswings, Easphi, Easytoremember, Eclecticology, Edgar181, Edward321, Eeekster, El C, El gato verde, Elagatis, Eleassar777,mental147, Ellisjudd, Elnachado08, Ericamick, Erzengel, Escape Orbit, Esp1818, Esrever, Estlandia, Etm157, Euzen, Everyking, Evgenikovalev, Evil otto, Evil saltine, Evolve75, EyeSeren2010, Faithlessthewonderboy, FayssalF, Fconaway, Fcscolah, Filanca, Finetooth, Fisenko, Flare84, Flavius Belisarius, Flewis, Freischen, Frietjes, Funnyhat, Future Perfect at Sunrise, GJeffel, Galoubet, Gauche, Gaylencrufts, Gdr, GeeksHaveFeelings, General Grievous, Geoffman, GeorgeLouis, Ghettogirl4765, Ghirlandajo, Ghostreveries, Gilgamesh he, Gimboid13, Gomm,nzo1551, GoolyBG, Gotterfunken, Gr8opinionater, GraemeLeggett, GreatWhiteNortherner, Gregorydavid, Groshna, Ground Zero, Groundsquirrel13, Grunt, Grutness, Gryps5, Gums101,ch, Gurubrahma, Gwib, HDCase, HPJoker, Haber, Hadal, Haemo, Hannaphrael, HansHermans, Haybaler, HelpMaBoab, Hephaestos, Hetar, HexaChord, Hexamon, Himatey, Historymike,

hum, Hoodinski, Hotspur23, Howcheng, Hugo999, Husond, Huwr, Hydrobrain, Hydrogen Iodide, I1990k, ISasha, ITSENJOYABLE, Ian Pitchford, Icairns, Ideogram, Idleguy, Ihcoyc,ulgentReader, Infrogmation, Innocent(RF), Inoculatedcities, Instantramen92, Interfector, Introscop, InverseHypercube, Ipankonin, Iridescent, Iritakamas, Irpen, Isaak3330, Istabraq, Itai, J.aryott, J.M.Domingo, J.delanoy, JHunterJ, JNW, Jaan, Jack1956, Jackattack58, Jak123, JamesMLane, Jampire1, Janet2001, Jason Lawrence Justice, Jauerback, JavaJawaUK, Jayanthv86,den54, Jbening, Jeff G., Jejorda2, Jeoly, JeremeyMurphy, Jhwoods, Jiang, Jim.henderson, Jk5004, Jkos02, Joaquin008, Joe Beaudoin Jr., John K, JonathanDP81, Jorisvo, Josephabradshaw,si, Jrt989, Jyril, KNewman, Kalamkaar, Kansas Bear, Karl Dickman, Kazhdenin, Kbrooks, Ke4roh, Kelvinc, Kencf0618, Kennet.mattfolk, Keno, Kernel Saunters, Kev, Khoikhoi, Kiliccote,erman2, KingKane, Kinneyboy90, Kirill Lokshin, Kjkbrjy, KnightRider, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kober, Kokkare, Kralizec!, Krasnoya, Kross, Ksenon, Kuban kazak, Kudzu1, Kukini, Kuralyov

sma, Kvanever, Kwamikagami, Lacrimosus, Lamna, Laserbeamcrossfire, Leandrod, LedgendGamer, Leebo, Leemaths, Lethargy, Levelistchampion, Lexio, LiDaobing, LightSpectra,hthouseyard, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Limideen, Linmhall, Little Professor, Loopy, Looxix, Lord Emsworth, LordHarris, Lothar von Richthofen, Lotje, Lowe4091, LuYiSi, Luca Borghi,kas Blade, Lucyin, Luk, Lumos3, MGRILLO, MPerel, Macukali, Madam Sillyface, Madeinusa, Magila gorril, Magister Mathematicae, Malcolm Farmer, Mandarax, ManyFireflies,rconius666, Mark O'Sullivan, Martynas Patasius, Marygrace777, Masterkser, Mathiasrex, Mav, MaxSem on AWB wheels, Maximus Rex, Maximushyrule, Mbarbier, Mbrunken, McSly,lkahb, Meltonkt, Mentatus, Mephistophelian, MiLo28, Mic of orion, Mickeymouseluver, Mihailok, MileyDavidA, Mimihitam, Mintguy, MisfitToys, Misza13, Mitsuhirato, MoRsE, Modehaeron, Monkey Bounce, Monobi, Moonraker, Moop2000, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mpgviolist, Mr0t1633, Mukadderat, Murphy11, Myjewgold, Mzajac, Nameneko,iveForeigner, NawlinWiki, Nazizombiesrcool, Neddyseagoon, Nedlum, Neelix, NeilN, Neutrality, Nicetomeetyou, Nick Number, Nick19thind, NickCT, Nicolas Barbier, Nidator, Night Gyitn, Nipsonanomhmata, North Shoreman, Nunquam Dormio, Obey, Obli, Obzerva, Old Moonraker, OlderIgor, Olivier, Ombudswiki, Open2universe, Opera hat, Originalbigj, Orkh,enBlacker, PDH, PFHLai, PSNMand, Paedia, Palmiped, Panairjdde, Panarjedde, Paris By Night, Parkwells, PatGallacher, Patar knight, Pavel Vozenilek, Penguinwithaspear, Per Honor etria, Peripitus, Persian Poet Gal, Peruvianllama, Petri Krohn, Peyre, Pgan002, Pharring, Philip Trueman, PhnomPencil, Phoenix-wiki, Physchim62, Pic Business, Piercetp, Poli, Polskivinnikylerus, Poochy, Pseudo-Richard, Puffin, Qmwneb2, Quite, R'n'B, R0ry98, R107, RG2, RJPe, Rabbie Barns, Radon210, Rama, Ramesh Ramaiah, Rande M Sefowt, Randoley, RaseaC,hersTierney, RazorICE, Reedy, Reenem, Remuel, RetiredUser2, Rettetast, RexNL, Rgvis, Rich Farmbrough, Richard75, Rickard Vogelberg, Rif Winfield, RjCan, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi,awton, RobNS, Robert Merkel, Robertgreer, Robertvan1, Roche-Kerr, Roger Davies, Roke, Ronnymexico, Roux, RoyBoy, Rrburke, SDC, SFC9394, ST47, SURIV, SaberToothedWhale,

moboow, Sango123, Sapper37, Sashhenka, Scalpy, Scriberius, SeNeKa, Seaphoto, Selket, ShakingSpirit, Shanes, Shuppiluliuma, Signals in Some, Sinnedit, SkerHawx, Sketchmoose, Skizzifaller, Sleigh, Smalljim, Smarkflea, Smith9847, Smsarmad, SnappingTurtle, Snorki, Snoyes, SoLando, Soetermans, Spageti, Spellcast, SpookyMulder, Srnec, SteveM123, Steven3131,

vertigo, Storm Rider, StradivariusTV, Student7, Suitov, Sunray, Supasheep, SuperLuigi31, Supertask, SwinSvinoza, TYelliot, Tabletop, Tainter, Taistelu-Jaska, Takabeg, Tarquin, Tarunn90hnomad, The Giant Puffin, The Interior, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Utahraptor, The wub, Thearith, Theo10011, ThereIsNoSteve, Thief12, Thomas81,

omasw329, Thue, Thumperward, Tide rolls, Tim!, Toddy1, Tokle, Tom87020, Tombseye, Tommiks, Tony164, TooPotato, Topbanana, TopoCode, Toreau, Tpower, Trevor MacInnis, Triddlstan benedict, TruHeir, Tyler M. Chapin, UberCryxic, Ugen64, Ugur Basak, Uhu219, UltimaRatio, UpstateNYer, User27091, Usrnme h8er, Valip, Vanished user 03, Vanished userriu3jisj0j4irj, Vary, Vasile, VasilievVV, Vdavisson, Vervin, Victor falk, Viking1808, Vin Kaleu, Viriditas, Voici, Volker89, Voyevoda, Wakavankhai, Warbeagle, Warrenmcallister,

eliljimmy, WellsSouth, Wetman, WhisperToMe, Wik, WikiDao, WikiFlier, Wikiuser100, Wilford Nusser, Willdasmiffking, Wknight94, Woodgreener, Woody, Woohookitty,rldWarTwoEditor, Wwilly, Xcentaur, Xtfer, Xyl 54, Ypacara”, Yuri Kenobi, ZKumaran, Zaporoje1, Zas2000, Zoicon5, Zscout370, j–—–lfr, 1292 anonymous edits

mage Sources, Licenses and Contributorsage:Cornet Wilkin 11th Hussars.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cornet_Wilkin_11th_Hussars.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Roger Fenton

age:Sinope aivaz.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sinope_aivaz.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ANGELUS, Alex-engraver, AndreyA, BezPRUzyn,kk, Ghirlandajo, Ibn Battuta, Jarekt, Jodo, Laurent Jerry, Rcbutcher, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, Shakko, 1 anonymous edits

e:Russo-French skirmish during Crimean War.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russo-French_skirmish_during_Crimean_War.PNG License: Public Domainntributors: Anonymous plate

age:Mahmudiye (1829).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mahmudiye_(1829).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Historic image from the archives of thekish Navy.

age:Crimean-war-1853-56.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crimean-war-1853-56.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported

ntributors: Koryakov Yuri

age:Fall of Sevastopol.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fall_of_Sevastopol.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Adam Cuerden, Fils du Soleil, G.dallortoen, Kingruedi, Kneiphof

e:Vernet - Taking of the Malakoff.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vernet_-_Taking_of_the_Malakoff.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Adam CuerdkenSphere, GeorgHH, Mattes, Smooth O

e:Russo-British skirmish during Crimean War.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russo-British_skirmish_during_Crimean_War.png License: Public Domainntributors: Anonymous plate

age:Firing-at-Taganrog.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Firing-at-Taganrog.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: ISasha, MrPanyGoff, 1 anonymous edits

age:Sveaborg bombed.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sveaborg_bombed.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Ghirlandajo

age:Napadka.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Napadka.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ghirlandajo, Jalo, Marku1988, The Deceiver

e:Greek volunteers in Sevastopol 1854.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_volunteers_in_Sevastopol_1854.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:nown

e:Balaklava sick 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Balaklava_sick_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Simpson, William, 1823-1899, artist., Paul &minic Colnaghi & Co., publishers

e:Roglan, Omer-Pasha & Pelisier.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roglan,_Omer-Pasha_&_Pelisier.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ˜™†ˆš™† ˜›•™œ†…•ˆ„† ̃ ™†„Ÿˆ†

age:CrimeaWarMemorialLondon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CrimeaWarMemorialLondon.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5ntributors: LordHarris

age:Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky-Chapel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky-Chapel.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Arsenshin, Hardscarf



License

ative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

Documents

[W] Guerra Da Crimeia