Transcript
Page 1: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a OrganizaçãoMundial do Comércio

São Paulo, 10 de janeiro 2010

Ricardo Camargo Mendes

[email protected]

Page 2: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Introduction

Economic theory – free trade (comparative advantage)

In practice – state intervention (protectionism):Source of income (important for small countries)Mercantilist reasons (surplus)Agriculture and industrial development Influence of pressure groups – lobbies

Trade agreements – trade-offs

Page 3: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Introduction

End of WWII Motivation to create a system different from the

end of WWI Need to establish mechanisms to avoid

devaluation of productivity and trade barriers Support from the US to create an International

Trade Organization the GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariff)

Stable economy with market access, non-discrimination (suppliers and investors) avoid new wars

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Introduction

History GATT – results from negotiations to create an

International Trade Organization (Bretton Woods) Bretton Woods Institutions – World Bank (BIRD) and

International Monetary Fund (IMF) Havana Chart – not ratified by the US Congress GATT 1947 – negotiated among 23 countries (12

developed and 11 developing – Brazil was one of them)

Meant to be temporary (no institutional structure) Expansion of the number of countries through the

years (Rounds) System well “lubricated” when the WTO was

created (1994)

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Basic Principles and Functioning

Functions of the multilateral trading system

1. Negotiation forum Bargain and negotiation – main instruments to

reduce trade barriers and establish rules of behavior (market of concessions)

Condition liberalization to more market access in foreign markets – more politically viable

Problem of political economy – losers of free trade are more organized than the beneficiaries

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Basic Principles and Functioning

Functions of the multilateral trading system

1. Negotiation forum (cont.)ResultsComplex net of interests – losers and

beneficiaries confronted (lobby x lobby)Reciprocal liberalization – end of prisoner's

dilemma

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Basic Principles and Functioning

Functions of the multilateral trading system

2. Code of conductWTO – rules for the countries’ trade

policiesRestricts the freedom of countries to adopt

protectionist policiesMore difficult for protectionist lobbies to

act with countries

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Basic Principles and Functioning

Five principles (before and after the creation of the WTO)

1. Non-discrimination Most Favorite Nation National Treatment

2. Reciprocity Important negotiating instrument (Brazil’s agriculture offer

has to match its demands in the area)

3. Enforcement of commitments Bound tariffs cannot be nullified by other forms of

protectionism (non-tariff barriers)

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Basic Principles and Functioning

Five principles (before and after the creation of the WTO)

4. Transparency Access to information about the trade regimes Countries obliged to publish information Trade policy reviews

5. Security clauses Governments can restrict free trade in some cases:

a) Non-trade objectives (public health, national security, protection of sectors highly damaged by imports) – CFIUS (growing restrictions to FDI in critical sectors for national security)b) Subsidies and dumpingc) Balance of payments problems

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Basic Principles and Functioning

SimilaritiesBasic principles still the

same: Consensus Member driven

Changes More member

countries (148 in 2005)

Single undertaking More transparency Negative consensus

for the Dispute Settlement Unit

Differences and similarities between GATT (1947) and the WTO

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Basic Principles and Functioning

WTO Institutional Framework – 4 Annexes

1. GATT 1994, GATS, TRIPS2. Dispute Settlement Unit (DSU)3. Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM)4. Plurilateral Agreements

– Agreement on Government Procurement– Agreement on Trade in Civil Aviation (aircrafts and

parts)

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Basic Principles and Functioning

Political Formulation of rules and

commitments Negotiations (trade-offs) Rounds

Legal Enforcement of rules and

commitments previously agreed

Rules (International Economic Law)

Dispute Settlement Unit

Two Aspects of the WTO

Page 13: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Basic Principles and Functioning

Dispute Settlement Unit (DSU)

DSU can be initiated whenever a member country feels that: There is a violation of rules or commitments by another

member country Another member country is enforcing measures that

nullify the commitments bound in the WTO Other types of complaints against unfair trade practices

Four phases: consultations, panels, appeal and enforcement

Brazil: important user of DSU (technical qualification)

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Topics of Negotiation

Non-agriculture manufactures (NAMA) – trade facilitation

Agriculture Services Intellectual Property Antidumping and Safeguards Investments Government Procurement Competition Policy Environment and labor standards Subsidies and countervailing measures Regional Trade Agreements

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

International Trade of Goods by Region (2008)

Sourc

e:

WTO

– W

orl

d T

rad

e R

eport

2009

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

International Trade of Goods by Region (2008)

Sourc

e:

WTO

– W

orl

d T

rad

e R

eport

2009

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Tariffs– Tax charged when a merchandise crosses a

national border– Different types:

1. Ad valorem – percentage of the value of the merchandise

2. Specific – amount of money per unit (ex. US$ 1.5 per liter of wine)

3. Combination of both– GATT does not establish which one should be

adopted (advantages and disadvantages)

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Tariffs In theory the only types of protectionism

allowed Reduced after several rounds Kennedy Round (1964-1967) – first time

that a general reduction for industrial goods was attempted through the adoption of a formula

Most Favorite Nation Principle (except in cases of regional integration)

Countries cannot raise bound tariffs

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Difference between applied and bound tariffs

Especially in developing countriesTwo reasons:

1. Bargain token2. Possibility of increasing applied tariffs

(protection against exchange rate variations)

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs

Source: WTO – World Tariff Profiles 2008

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs

Source: WTO – World Tariff Profiles 2008

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

Page 26: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

Page 27: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

Page 29: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

Page 30: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

Page 31: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

Page 32: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

Page 33: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Profile of Tariffs (cont.)

Source: WTO – World Tariffs Profile 2008

Page 34: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

How to reduce tariffs? Application of a non-linear formula and applied to

each position Linear – reduce all tariffs in an equivalent

manner (Kennedy Round)- Significant reduction of high tariffs, but does nit

ensure reduction or elimination of tariff peaks and tariff escalation

Non-linear – reduce proportionally highest tariffs than lower ones

Harmonization between tariffs of a single country, and among countries (as long as a similar coefficient is used for the countries involved)

Page 35: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Non-linear Formula

Country 1 Tariff-base New Tariff Reduction

Tariff 1 2.0% 1.7% 17%

Tariff 2 3.0% 2.3% 23%

Tariff 3 10.0% 5.0% 50%

Tariff Average 5.0% 3.0% 40%

Country 2 Tariff-base New Tariff Reduction

Tariff 1 10.0% 5.0% 50%

Tariff 2 15.0% 6.0% 60%

Tariff 3 50.0% 8.3% 83%

Average Tariff 25.0% 6.0% 74%

““Harmonizing” effect of the non-linear formulaHarmonizing” effect of the non-linear formula

Sou

rce

: T

hors

tens

en,

V.

e Ja

nk,

M.

(200

5)

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Topics of Negotiation - NAMA

Issues discussed in the Market Access Group

Still on the agenda for the revised Doha Round

Additional element to the trade-offs

NAMA

ServicesAgriculture

Market Acess

Trade Facilitation

Page 37: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

Source: OMC – World Trade Report 2004

Historical backgroundGATT (1947) – several exceptions left

agriculture on side of multilateral rulesUruguay Round – beginning of discussions

about effective inclusion of more strict rules for agriculture

January 1995 – Agriculture Agreement entered into force

8 years to be concluded!Peace Clause

Until end of 2003

Page 38: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

The Agriculture Agreement: Main Aspects

Definition of what is an “agriculture product” – chapters 1 to 24 of the Harmonized System (excluding fishery)

Consolidation and later reduction of export subsidies and domestic support to the producers

Tariffication Binding and average reduction of tariffs Minimum access to highly protected products

(tariff quotas)

Page 39: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

Main issues affecting multilateral trade of agriculture products

Tariff and non-tariff barriersDomestic subsidies (domestic support)Export subsidies and credits

Geographic indicators

Three pilars of agriculture negotiations

Page 40: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

Brazil USA EC-15 China India

Average 10.2% 12.3% 29.3% 15.3% 36.9%

Highest tariff 55.0% 350.0% 277.2% 71.0% 182.0%

Lowest tariff 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Positions ≥100% (pp)

- 31 (1.7%)

152 (7.3%)

- 54 (7.8%)

Positions ≥30% (pp)

4 167 633 130 108

Total positions 959 1,829 2,091 1,044 690

Market Access: Agriculture Tariff in Sellected Markets

Source: Ícone

Page 41: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

Domestic support: classified in three “boxes”, according to distortion potential

Yellow – most distortion (minimum pricing policies, subsidized credits, fiscal exemptions, complementary payments, etc.)

Blue – direct payments and distortion programs conditioned to mechanisms for limiting production

Green – minimum distortion programs (infra-structure, research, sanitary and phitossanitary services, agriculture reform, direct payments not linked to production, among others)

Source: Thorstensen, V. e Jank, M. (2005)

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Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

Export subsidies

All types of governmental support directly linked to exports

Commitments for reduction EU – Responsible for nearly the totality of export

subsidies

Page 43: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

Main coalitions in agriculture negotiations

1. Cairns Group

Members – Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Philippines, Guatemala, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Paraguay, South Africa, Thailand and Uruguay

Goal – Real and effective liberalization of agriculture in world trade. Defend the elimination of protections and subsidies given to the sector

Page 44: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

Main coalitions in agriculture negotiations2. G-20 Members –Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil,

Chile, China, Cuba, Egypt, Philippines, Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, South Africa, Thailand, Tanzania, Venezuela and Zimbabwe

Goal – Liberalization of agriculture trade in the developed countries, with the reduction of subsidies and creation of rules that increase market access to products from developing countries. Reluctance to accept real increase of market access in developing countries.

Page 45: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

Main coalitions in agriculture negotiations 3. The USA Goal – Creation of rules for liberalization on

trade in agriculture goods. However, contradiction as it maintains protectionist policies (tariff peaks and quotas, farm bill, etc.)

4. Europe-Korea-Japan Goal – Agriculture a political sensitive sector,

protected by tariff peaks and selective quotas, as well as non tariff barriers

Page 46: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Agriculture

Main coalitions in agriculture negotiations

5. Demandeurs of preferential treatment Members – Least developed countries, especially from

Africa and the Pacific Goal – Rely on preferential treatment for trade (GSP) for

their main exported commodities, therefore aligning with developed countries

6. Large developing countries Members – China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc. Goal – Refuse liberalization of market access through high

tariffs, quotas, sanitary barriers, among other measures

Page 47: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - IP

TRIPS Agreement Intellectual property became a multilateral

trade topic after the Uruguay Round Agreement imposes to governments several

obligations in the domestic legislation Tough negotiations during the Uruguay

Round: strong opposition from India, Brazil, Egypt, Argentina and Yugoslavia

Agreement covers copy rights, design of integrated circuits, geographic indication, trademark, industrial design and patents

Page 48: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - IP

Sensitive issues TRIPS + Agreement Ambiguous interpretation of the

agreement Compulsory licensing (patent breach in

cases of epidemic) Harmonization of TRIPS with other

agreements and conventions on IP (WIPO and CBD) – access to biogenetic resources and traditional knowledge

Brazil: one of the main players in the negotiations

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Topics of Negotiation - Investments

Topic covered by three areas of the WTO

Work group: created in 1996 to analyze the relation between trade and investment

TRIMS Agreement: part of the NAMA Agreement, prohibits measures that condition FDI to trade performance

GATS (Mode 3)

Page 50: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Services

The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) Entered into force in Jan 1995 with the creation of the

WTO All member countries are part of the agreement Demand of developed countries (Agriculture x New

Topics) Developing countries afraid of reduction of sovereignty

of countries (policies and regulation restrictions) Barriers to trade in services are not tariffs, but

legislation Developing countries started to be interested in the

agreement at the beginning of the decade (outsourcing)

Page 51: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Topics of Negotiation - Services

Basic principles All services are covered by GATS (except

public services) MFN principle applied to all services (temporary

exceptions possible) National treatment when commitment bound Regulations have to be objectives and

reasonable Commitments of countries: negotiated and

bound Progressive liberalization: negotiations

Page 52: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

55%

72%

38%

56%

57%

61%

Leading Exporters and Importers in World Trade inCommercial Services – 2008 (USD bi e %)

Source: WTO – World Trade Report 2009

Page 53: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

55%

72%

38%

56%

57%

61%

Leading Exporters and Importers in World Trade inCommercial Services – 2008 (USD bi e %)

Source: WTO – World Trade Report 2009

Page 54: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio
Page 55: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

AM TN AM TN AM TN AM TN AM TN

Modo 1

Unbound except that a foreign service supplier may cede its name to Brazilian professionals

UnboundSem

posiçãoSem

posiçãoUnbound Unbound Unbound Unbound Unbound Unbound

Modo 2 Unbound UnboundSem

posiçãoSem

posiçãoUnbound Unbound Unbound Unbound Unbound Unbound

Modo 3

Participation of non-residents in juridical

persons controlled by Brazilian nationals is

not allowed. A foreign service supplier shall

not use its foreign name, but may cede it

to Brazilian professionals who will

constitute and exercise full participation in a new juridical person

within Brazil.

Special registration

requirements for accountants who

wish to audit such companies

as financial institutions and

savings and loans

associations. Brazilian

accounting and auditing

standards must be followed.

Sem posição

Sem posição

None None None None

Companies must be

registered with the Regional

Council of Administrators

None

Modo 4Unbound except

as indicated in the horizontal section

Unbound except as

indicated in the horizontal

section

Sem posição

Sem posição

Unbound except as indicated

in the horizontal

section

Unbound except as indicated

in the horizontal

section

Unbound except as indicated

in the horizontal

section

Unbound except as indicated

in the horizontal

section

Unbound except as

indicated in the

horizontal section

Unbound except as indicated

in the horizontal

section

Taxation ServicesAccounting, auditing and

bookeeping servicesServices related to

management consultingManagement

consulting services

Market research and public opinion polling

service

GATS – More transparency and predictibility

Rest

rict

ions

for en

try

Trea

tmen

t as

com

pare

d

to

dom

estic co

mpa

nies

Topics of Negotiation - Services

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Comparison between bound commitments and Doha Round Offers – distribution of the types of position related to the category of IT and BPO services - Brazil

IT/BPO - Mode 1 – Market Access

IT/BPO -Mode 3 – Market Access IT/BPO - Mode 4 – Market Access

Source

: Pro

spectiv

a C

onsu

ltoria

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Brasil - Compromissosconsolidados

Brasil - Oferta RodadaDoha

None

Com restrições

Unbound

Sem posição

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Brasil - Compromissosconsolidados

Brasil - Oferta RodadaDoha

None

Com restrições

Unbound

Sem posição

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Brasil - Compromissosconsolidados

Brasil - Oferta RodadaDoha

None

Com restrições

Unbound

Sem posição

Topics of Negotiation - Services

Page 57: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Comparison between bound commitments and Doha Round Offers – distribution of the types of position related to the category of IT and BPO services - India

IT/BPO - Mode 1 – Market Access

TI/BPO -Mode 3 – Market Access IT/BPO - Mode 4 – Market Access

Source

: Pro

spectiv

a C

onsu

ltoria

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Índia - Compromissosconsolidados

Índia - Oferta RodadaDoha

None

Com restrições

Unbound

Sem posição

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Índia - Compromissosconsolidados

Índia - Oferta RodadaDoha

None

Com restrições

Unbound

Sem posição

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Índia - Compromissosconsolidados

Índia - Oferta RodadaDoha

None

Com restrições

Unbound

Sem posição

Topics of Negotiation - Services

Page 58: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

The Doha Round

Launched in November 2001 After tentative of launching in the Millennium

Round in Seattle International context “post September 11”

forced the launch, even without political support Initial agenda very ambitious: services and

agriculture (continuation of discussions started in 2000), intellectual property and Singapore issues

Initial deadline for the conclusion of the Round: January 1 2005

Development became the main concern (Doha Development Round)

Page 59: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

The Doha Round

Revision Goals of the Round were revised in the Cancun (2003),

Geneva (2004) and Hong Kong (2005) meetings Geneva 2004 meeting: “July Package” New deadline for the conclusion of the Round: 31

December 2006 NAMA, agricultur2, services and IP are still on the

agenda Singapore issues: only “trade facilitation” remains on

the agenda Expiration of the TPA in the US further complication to

the Round

Page 60: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

The Doha Round

Deadlock Multilateral trading system might have reached

the limit of political economy (single undertaking model)

Agriculture: pivot of the deadlock (US and Brazil) Likely to continue even if deadlock in agriculture

is broken (India and Brazil NAMA) Proliferation of bilateral and regional FTAs Increase of disputes in the DSU Need to think a new model of multilateral trading

system

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Acordos Regionais

Proliferação de acordos regionais com crise do Sistema Multilateral do Comércio

No início, eram apenas acordos de preferência tarifária (APTR) entre países

Atualmente, acordos podem envolver também: Investimentos, Serviços, Propriedade Intelectual, Padrões Ambientais e Trabalhistas, e etc.

Estariam em desacordo com o princípio da NMF do GATT:

Artigo 24 do GATT dispõe sobre acordos regionais: sua regulamentação e “legalização”

“Cláusula Permissiva” do GATT 1979: Permite preferências tarifárias para países em desenvolvimento

Artigo 5 do GATS: Acordos regionais para serviços

Page 62: O Sistema Multilateral de Comércio e a Organização Mundial do Comércio

Acordos Regionais

238 acordos em vigor registrados na OMC (fev. 09)

França, Alemanha, Itália e Reino Unido: 42 cada

Brasil:

Mercosul – Bens Mercosul – Serviços Aladi: Bens

ACE 35 (Mercosul e Chile); ACE 55 (Mercosul e México – ACE 53 automotivo); ACE 59 (Mercosul e CAN) e ACE 62 (Mercosul e Cuba)


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