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Curitiba Case Study
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NotefromtheAuthor
ThisstudyexaminestheleadershipprocessesofacoreteamofplannersinCuritiba,Brazil.Itis
presentedinnarrativeform,followedbyabriefsingle‐caseanalysissectionandsummaryoffindings.
Datausedforthecasestudyincludepublicdocuments,participantinterviews,fieldnotesfromsite
visitations,andmulti‐mediaimagesandmaps.Participantsintheinterviewprocesswereselectedfroma
coreteamoforganizationalandplanningleadersthathasbeenintegraltotheinitiationandimplementation
ofthecommunityplanningandengagementprocess.Duetoethicalconsiderations,theresearcherhassought
toprotecttheanonymityofresearchparticipants.Nonamesorotheridentifyingfeaturesareattributedto
quotesderivedfromtheresearchinterviews.Henceforth,allresearchparticipants,whendirectlyquoted,will
bereferredtoasintervieweeinthecasenarrative.However,duetothepublicnatureofthesecasestudies,
namesandleadingfiguresarementionedinrelationshiptopublicdocumentsourcesandcitations.
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THESTORYOFCURITIBA,BRAZIL
CuritibaisalargeprovincialcapitalcityinsoutheasternBrazilwithapopulationofroughly2.4
millioninhabitants.Curitibaisnotknownforanyexceptionallandmark;therearenobeachesorwide,bridge‐
spannedrivers.Itrainsquiteoften.Ithasslumsorshantytownsthathavesprouteduparoundthecity’s
edgeswithroughly1,700newpeasantsmigratingfromthecountrysidetothecityeverymonth(Pierce,
1990).Itspopulationhasskyrocketedoverthepastfiftyyears,growingsixteen‐fold.Itscityresourceshave
beenscant.
Figure1.SatelliteMaps
CURITIBA
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Givenallofthis,itisasmallwonderthatCuritibahasnotfollowedinthefootstepsofmostotherburgeoning
thirdworldcitiesfacedwiththesedilemmas.Ratherthenbecominganurbanmetropolisoverrunwith
poverty,unemployment,inequity,andpollutionoverthepasthalf‐century,Curitibaanditscitizenshave
insteadseenacontinuousandhighlysignificantelevationintheirqualityoflife.
Thoughstartingwiththedismaleconomicprofiletypicalofitsregion,innearlythreedecadesthecityhasachievedmeasurablybetterlevelsofeducation,health,humanwelfare,publicsafety,democraticparticipation,politicalintegrity,environmentalprotection,andcommunityspiritthanitsneighbors,andsomewouldsaythanmostcitiesintheUnitedStates.(Hawkenet.al.,1999,p.288)
Many,includingtheUnitedNations,haveinfactlaudedthecityofCuritibaasnowbeingaleading
modelorecologicalurbandevelopmentandplanning(McKibben,1995).Thestatisticsshowwhy:
• Theamountofgreenspacepercapitainthecityhasriseninthepastthirtyyearsfromadismalhalf‐
a‐squaremeterofgreenspaceperinhabitanttoover50squaremetersperinhabitant(Ribeiro&Tavares,1992).Infact,nearlyone‐fifthofthecityisnowparkland(MacLeod,2002).
• Over1.5milliontreeshavebeenplantedbyvolunteersalongstreetsandavenues(Pierce,2000)
• Curitiba’sfastandefficientbussystemcarriesmorepassengersperweekdaythanNewYorkCity’sandrunswithan89percentapprovalrating(Hawken,et.al.,1999).
• Autotraffichasdeclinedbyover30%since1974,despitethefactsthatCuritiba’spopulationhas
doubledinthisperiodoftimeandthattheremorecarownerspercapitainCuritibathenanywhereelseinBrazil(MacLeod,2002).
• ThecityofCuritibahasthehighestpercentageofcitizenswhorecycleintheworld(Ribeiro&Tavares,1992).Infact,over70percentofallthecity’strashisnowrecycled(MacLeod,2002).
• Curitiba’s30‐yeareconomicgrowthrateis7.1percenthigherthanthenationalaverage,resultinginapercapitaincomethatisnow66percenthigherthantheBrazilianaverage(MacLeod,2002).
Whatmakestheseaccomplishmentsevenmoreastonishingisthefactthatallthiswasachieved
throughthemeansofaverylimitedcivicbudget.ManyofCuritiba’sprogramsaredesignedtohelppayfor
themselves,toaddressmultiplecivicissuesatthesametime,andtosystemicallycoordinatewithandenable
theworkingofotherprograms.The“GreenExchange”isagoodexampleofthissystemicapproachto
planning.
Intheslumsorfavelas,whererefusevehiclescan’tnegotiateunpavedalleys,smalltrucksfanoutinamassive‘GreenExchange.’Forbagsofsortedtrash,tensofthousandsofthecity’spoorestreceive
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bagsofrice,beans,eggs,bananas,andcarrotsthatthecitybuysinexpensivelyfromthearea’ssurplusproduction.Theresult’sarebothbetterpublichealth(lesslitter,rats,disease)andbetternutrition.(Pierce,2000)
Furthermore,theexcessmoneygeneratedbythecity’srecyclingprogramisthenusedtofund
additionaleducationalandhealthprogramsforthepoor.Manyoftheseeducationalprogramsareinturn
housedinretired(yetfullyoperational)citybussesthathavebeenremodeledintomobileclassrooms.And
manyoftheseeducationalandsocialprogramsthemselvesgenerateincome.Forinstance,freeday‐care
centersforthepoorgivekidstheopportunitytocreateart‐and‐crafts,whicharethensoldinlocalsouvenir
shops.Asoneresidentexplainsit
Thecityisthebesthumaninvention.Buttomakeitwork,acity’ssocietymustbeunderstoodasatrainthatwillgonofasterthanitsslowestwagonorcar.Citygovernmentsexisttopushtheslowestcarsothewholetrainwillgofaster(Wright,1996).
FundamentaltoallofthesechangesinCuritibaisthechangethathastakenplaceinthecultureitself.
ThespiritwithintheCuritibancultureanditscivicpridehasrisendramatically.Inasurveyconductedinthe
1990s,over99percentofCuritibanstoldpollstersthatiftheycouldchooseanywhereintheworldtolive,
theywouldchooseCuritiba.ThiscontrastswithsimilarpollsconductedinNewYorkCity,inwhich60
percentsaidtheywouldratherlivesomewhereelse,andinSaoPaulo,inwhich70percentsaidtheywould
ratherliveinCuritiba(McKibben,1995).
Historically,Curitibahasbeenknownasbeingaratherconservativeandintrovertedsociety.This,
however,isnowchanging.Aslocalwriter,ValencioXavier(citedinMcKibben,1995),wrote,“Curitibahas
alwaysbeenaverytightcity...beforewewerelikeoystersthatcrackopenjustalittlebittogettheworld
passingby.Nowweareopeningup”(p.105).Curitibanstakeprideintheircityandonthewholearemuch
moreintrinsicallymotivatedtoactonbehalfofthecollectivegoodoftheircityandfellowcitizens.Inthe
1990s,downtownshopkeepersformedatradeassociationthatcollectedduestofundjointadvertisingand
sponsoractivities.Accordingtooneofthelocalshopkeepers,AnibalTacla(citedinMcKibben,1995)
InanyotherpartofBrazil,ifyoutalktoamerchantandaskhimtopaythreehundreddollarsamonthforanassociation,hewillgiveyouabigfourletterword.Here,eightypercentjoinedup.Everything’slikethatnow–ifyoutalktoCuritibansaboutseparatinggarbage,theywilldoit,becausetheyknowtheyliveinadifferentcity.Thismind‐condition–it’sveryimportant,andit’stheexactreverseofwhathappenedinRio[andforthatmattermostothermoderncities].(p.106)
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Figure2.CitySkylinein2008
Givenallofthesemeasuresofsuccess,thequestionthatarisesishowwasthisfeataccomplished;
howdidCuritibanssuccessfullybringaboutsuchalarge‐scaletransformationandregenerationoftheircity
structureandculture?
Whiletheanswertothisquestionisnotsimplenorclearlyapparentfromwhathasbeenwrittenon
Curitiba,alltheliteraturesourcesreviewedforthisstudy(e.g.McKibben,1995;Wright,1996;Pierce,2000;
Ribeiro&Tavares,1992;Hawken,et.al.,1999;MacLeod,2002;Meadows,1995;Vaz&VazdelBello,2006)
agreedthatcentraltothistransformationproject’ssuccesswastheleadershipandvisionaryroleheldby
JaimeLerner,theseveraltimesmayorofCuritibaandprincipalarchitectofthecity’surbanredevelopment
overthepastthirtysomeyears,andhiscoregroupofplanningassociates.
Theirstorybeginsinthe1950sand60s.Duringthisperiodoftime,Curitibawasdealingwiththe
strainingeffectsofanexplosivepopulationgrowththathadstartedtogainmomentuminthe1940sand50s.
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Between1950and1960,infact,thepopulationofCuritibadoubled(Schwartz,2004).Suchrapid,
unmanagedgrowthstretchedthelimitsofwhatthecityinfrastructurecouldhandle,inparticularlyinterms
ofitsabilitytohandleautomobiles.Trafficjamshadbecomemoreplentifulandairpollutionwasworsening
(McKibben,1995).Cityofficialsatthetimerespondedtothesechangesbycallingfortheimplementationofa
cityplanthathadbeendraftedtwodecadesearliertodealwiththeissueofreconfiguringthecityforthe
automobileera.It,likemosturbanplansofthattime,calledforwideningthemainstreetsofthecityto
includemorelanesandbuildingahighwayoverpassthatwouldlinktwoofthecity’smainsquares.
Implementingthisplan,however,requiredknockingdownmanyoftheturn‐of‐the‐centurybuildingsthat
linedthedowntownandbuildingthehighwayoverpassdirectlyoverthehistoricmain‐streetofthecity
(Ribeiro&Tavares,1992).
Tothecityadministration’ssurprise,uproarandresistancetothisplanwasunexpectedlystrong.
LeadingthisresistancewasJaimeLernerandhisassociatesinthearchitectureandplanningdepartmentsof
thelocalbranchofthefederaluniversity(McKibben,1995).ForJaimeLerner,thiscityplanandtheripping
upofthedowntownwhichitproposed,meanttheendofthecitywhichhehadlivedinandlovedallofthis
life.AccordingtoLerner,“They(thecityplannersatthetime)weretryingtothrowawaythestoryofthecity,
theyweretryingtoemulate,onamuchsmallerscale,the‘tabularasa’miracleofBrasilia(Brazil’scapitalcity
thatwasbuiltfromthegroundupasamoderncitywithmodernhigh‐risesandspeed‐ways)”(citedin
McKibben,1995,p.64).Thecitywasatacrossroads.Wasittogothewayofmostmoderncitiesand
accommodateitselfwhole‐heartedlytotheautomobile,evenifitmeantthelossofitsuniqueandhistorical
character,orcoulditfindanotherpath,onethatwouldreconcileitsmodernizationneedswithitshistorical
characterandtheprinciplesofhuman‐scaleandecological‐baseddevelopment?
Intheend,thestate’sdevelopmentcompanyrefusedtofinancetheseprojectsandinsteadoffered
fundstoenableanewmasterplantobedrawnup.Thus,in1965‐66,anewandquiteinnovativemasterplan
wasdeveloped,ledbythesamearchitectsandplanners,includingJaimeLerner,whohadfoughtagainstthe
implementationofthefirstcityplan.Containedwithinthisplan,asitturnedout,weretheseedthoughtsfor
reconcilingthemodernizationneedsofthecityontheonehandandthedesiretopreserveandgrowthe
historicalcharacterofthecityinahumanandpedestrianfriendlymannerontheother.Theimplementation
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ofthisplanbeganfiveyearslater,whenasaresultofapoliticalflukeJaimeLernerwaselectedmayorof
Curitibaattheageofthirty‐three.
Havingnowbecomemayor,oneofJaimeLerner’sfirstactionswasthebrilliantandhighlysymbolic
moveofremakingthedowntowninoneswiftandboldfeat.Havinghelpedtosavethehistoricdowntown
streetjustfiveyearsearlierfrombeingcoveredbyahighwayoverpass,JaimeLernernowsoughttorevitalize
thiscentralstreetbymakingitapedestrianmall.Suchamove,however,wasunheardofinthefieldofcity
planningatthetime.AccordingtoLerner,“Iknewwe’dhaveafight.Ihadnowaytoconvincethe
storeownersapedestrianmallwouldbegoodforthem,becausetherewasnootherpedestrianmallinBrazil.
Nootherintheworld,really,exceptmaybeMunich.ButIknewiftheyhadachancetoactuallyseeit,
everyonewouldloveit”(McKibben,1995,p.66).Knowingthis,Lernerandhisstaffpreparedforalmosta
yearbeforetheyacteddirectlyonthedowntownstreet.First,theycreatedtrafficalternativesthatmade
vehicleflowonthemainstreetlessnecessary.Thentheyworkedondesigningaplanforthestreet
redevelopmentthatwouldcreatetheleastresistancefromshop‐ownersandtheircustomers:“Itoldmystaff,
‘Thisislikeawar.’Mysecretaryofpublicworkssaidthejobwouldtaketwomonths.Igothimdowntoone
month.Maybeoneweek,hesaid,butthat’sfinal.Isaid,‘Let’sstartFridaynight,andwehavetofinishby
Mondaymorning.’”(LernerascitedinMcKibben,1995,p.66).Andthisisexactlywhattheydid.Movingin
withoverone‐hundredconstructionworkersonFridaynight,theyjack‐hammeredupthepavementandput
incobblestone,streetlights,andtensofthousandsofflowers.Thefollowingbusinessweek,thesame
storeownersthatwerethreateninglegalactiontofightthismove,wereaskingthemayortoextendthe
pedestrianmallevenfurthersothattheirstorestoocouldbeincludedinit.
Thefollowingweekend,however,thenewlycreatedpedestrianmallfacedanotherthreat.Members
ofthelocalautomobileclubplanneda“retakingofthestreet”bydrivingtheircarsthroughthemallin
protest.Ratherthensettingupapolicebarricadetostopthem,JaimeLernersentinchildren.Whenthe
protestorsarrivedatthemall,theyfounddozensofchildrensittingintheformerstreetspaintingmurals.
Thirtyyearslater,businessandculturallifeinthispedestrianmallisflourishing,andthemallnowextends
overtwentysquareblocksinthedowntownarea.
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Tothisday,everySaturdaymorning(exceptwhenthereisheavyrain)childrenstilltakeoverthe
pedestrianmallandpaintanddrawpicturesincommemorationofthedaywhenCuritibanstookbacktheir
city’shistoriccenterandreturnedittopedestriansandamorehuman‐scalewayoflife.
Figure3.PedestrianMallin2008
AUniqueApproachtoCityPlanning
OneofthemostdistinctiveandoutstandingaspectsofJaimeLernerandhisassociates’approachto
cityplanningwastheiruniqueworkprocess.Everymorning,Lernerandhiscoreteamofplannerswould
meetinalogcabinretreatinthemiddleofaforestedcitypark.There,accordingtooneoftheleaders
interviewedforthisstudy,theyworkedonly“onwhat(was)fundamental,onwhatwouldaffectalarge
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numberofpeopleandcouldcreatechangeforthebetter.”Then,intheafternoons,theywouldreturntocity
halltomeetwiththeirconstituentsandtodealwiththecity’sday‐to‐dayneeds.
Bystructuringtheirworkdaysinthisway,theseplannersputamuchgreaterdailyemphasisonlarge
scale,visionaryplanningthanmostcitygovernmentsdo.Yet,atthesametime,theysoughttotemperthis
deeper,visioningworkwithcontinualinteractionandexchangewiththeneedsofthepeople.Inotherwords,
themorningshelpedthemcontinuetoseeandworkonthebiggerpictureofthecityanditsevolution,while
theafternoonshelpedthemtostaygroundedintheneedsandpressingissuesthatthepeopleoftheircity
facedonaday‐to‐daybasis.Asoneintervieweestatesit,while“Ihadallkindsofpressureandpeoplecoming
andshowingtheirneedseveryafternoon,IcouldreactinagoodmoodbecauseIknewwewereworkingon
whatwasreallyfundamental.”
Accordingtotheplannersthatwereinterviewed,thisbalancebetweenneedsandpotentialswas
criticaltotheirsuccess.
Forme,agoodstrategyisadailybalancebetweenneedsandpotentials.Why?Becauseifyouareworkingonlywiththeneedsandgoingeverynightandaskingwhataretheneedsofthisneighborhoodorthat,youwon’tchangeanything.Ontheotherhand,ifyouarejustlookingatalargenumberofpeople,thebigproblems,you’llbefarfromthepeople.Soyouhavetokeepadailybalance.
Eachmorningwasstructuredasacharrette‐likeprocess.AccordingtoJaimeLerner,“weusethe
charrette,alwaysthecharrette”(citedinMcKibben,1995,p.77).Thecharretteisacreativedesignprocess
developedinarchitecturethatinvolvesgatheringkeyspecialistsfromdifferentfieldstogetherinanintensive
meetingtoquicklytryandsketchoutsolutionstoagivenchallengingsituation.IntheU.S.,thecharretteis
oftenemployedinthearchitecturalfieldasameansforstimulatingcreativityandcollaborativealignment
betweendesignteammembers.Insuchcases,however,thecharretteisalmostalwaysusedasanindividual
eventratherthanasacontinualday‐to‐dayprocess.Byturningtheirmorningmeetingsintoacontinual
charrettingprocessasopposedtoasolitaryevent,thecityplannersofCuritibawereabletogeneratethe
creativespaceinwhichtocontinuallydelvedeeperintotheirunderstandingofhowthecityworkedasan
integralsystemandhowtorefinesolutionsthatwouldenableitscontinuingimprovementandevolution
throughtime.“Itwasalwaysalearningprocess,”saidoneoftheinterviewees.
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Byworkinginthisway,thecityplannershelpedtocreateasharedsenseofcommitmentintheir
morningmeetingstowardcontinuallyworkingtoimprovethecriticalsystemsintheircity.Asone
intervieweestatesit,“youalwaysneedtomakeimprovements,”andthefocusofthemorningmeetingswas
“toidentifyandworkonthoseimprovements.”Dependingonwhattheywereworkingtoimprove,they
wouldcallinthecriticalleadersfromthatsystemtojointheirmeetings.Asthissameintervieweedescribes
theprocess,“Whenthediscussionwasontransportation,wegoteveryoneinvolvedfromtransportation.
Whendiscussionwascommunityengagement,thesame.”
Itisinterestingtonotethatwhileeachmemberofthiscoreteambroughttoitaparticular
professionalbackgroundandstrength,theydidnotseethemselvesasspecialistsbutratherasgeneralistsin
theirorientation.Someoftheplannershavestrongerarchitecturalbackgrounds,somehavestrongercivil
engineeringbackgrounds,somearemorefocusedontransportation,somehavegreaterbackgroundinthe
ecologyofthearea,somearestrongerintheirabilitytonavigatepoliticalissues,andsomearemorefocused
ondevelopingthecommunityandorganizationalsystems.Butratherthaneachworkingintheirownareaof
expertiseandperiodicallyreportingouttoothers,theyinsteaddevelopedaworkingprocessinwhichthey
wouldworkasateameverymorningonthecollectiveissuesofthecity.Inthisway,theycouldeachbringa
distinctiveperspectivethathelpedtoholdapictureofthelargerwhole,sothatthesolutionstheycameup
withweremuchmoremulti‐facetedandsystemicintheirapproach.Inthewordsofoneinterviewee,“the
multi‐facetedsuccessofourprojectsoccurredbecausewewerenotspecialists.Specialiststhinktheworld
spinsaroundtheirspecialties,whichreducescreativitygreatly.”
AuthenticCoreConcept
Criticaltoworkingeverymorningonthefundamentalissuesofthecity,wasthedevelopmentofa
coreconceptorscenarioforguidingthecity’sstructuralgrowth.Asoneintervieweeputsit
I’vebeeninmanyplacesintheworld,manycities.It’shardtofindoutfromthemthescenario.Whatisthedesignofthecity?What’stherealstructuralgrowth?Forme,thecityisastructureofliving,working,leisure,everythingtogether.Andinmanycitieswithverysophisticatedplanning,Icouldn’tgetananswerfromthemastowhatisthedesignofthecity.(I’dsay)“Makemeasketchofyourcity,”andtheywereafraidtodothis.Therewasalwayssomespots,somearrows,butneverareal
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design,arealconcept,whichisthestructuralgrowthofthecity.Forme,forallofus,thiswasdebilitating.IcannotworkinaplacewhereIdonotknowwhatisthescenario.
ThiscoreconceptforguidingCuritiba’sstructuralgrowth,however,wasnotsomethingthatthe
plannersbelievedcouldbeinventedoutofthinair.Rather,theybelievedthatitwascriticaltoderivethis
conceptfromanunderstandingofhowtheplaceauthenticallyworkedinthepast.AccordingtoJaimeLerner
Everycityhasitshiddendesigns–oldroads,oldstreetcarways.You’renotgoingtoinventanewcity.Instead,you’redoingastrangearcheology,tryingtoenhancetheold,hiddendesign.(ascitedinMcKibben,1995,p.68)
This“strangearcheology,”however,requiredmorethanjustanunderstandingofhistoricalhuman
settlementpatterns.Italsorequiredanunderstandingofhowtheecologicalsystemworkedandflowed
throughthearea.Curitibaexistsonaforestedfloodplain,throughwhichmultipleriversintersecteachother
multipletimes.Inthisfloodplain,thegreatestdiversityandaccumulationofbiologicallifeoccurredalongthe
rivercorridors.Whenhumanssettledtheplain,firstasindigenouspeoplesandlaterasEuropeanandother
immigrantgroups,theysetuptransportationcorridorsthatranalongsideandtendedtomirrortheseriver
corridors.Thisflowofcommerceandhumanexchange,whichtendedtomatchtheflowofbiological
exchange,ledtothedevelopmentofmanyofthemajorroadarteriesthatrunthroughCuritibatoday.
Throughthisprocessof“strangearcheology,”JaimeLernerandhiscoreteamsawthatlife(both
humanandother)tendedtoconcentratealongthesecorridorsofflow.Basedonthisunderstanding,they
realizedthatthetraditionalradialmodelofurbangrowth,inwhichthereisadenselypopulatedcitycenter
andincreasinglylessdensepopulatedareasasyoumoveoutwardsfromthecenter,didnotmatchtheway
thatlifeworkedintheircity.Therefore,theydevelopedacoreconceptforCuritiba’sstructuralgrowthof“a
linearcitywithstructuralarteries”(Ribeiro&Tavares,1992,p.12).Thislineargrowthconceptinvolved
concentratingdevelopmentofcommercialandresidentialusealongthemajorcorridorsoftransportation.
Therefore,thetallestbuildings,themostcommercialactivity,andthegreatestintensityofpublic
transportationroutesoccuralongthesecorridors.Inaddition,thelandaroundthebiologicalcorridors(i.e.,
therivers)wasboughtbythecityanddevelopedintolinearparksthatnowweavethroughoutthecity,often
paralleltothedenselypopulatedurbantransportationcorridors.Asoneintervieweeputit,thishelpedto
“keeptheriversflowingnaturally.”
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Thiscoreconceptoflineargrowthhascontinuedtoguidethemasterplanningandzoningpoliciesof
thecityforthelastthirtyplusyears(Ribeiro&Tavares,1992).
Co‐ResponsibilityandSolidarity
Evenwithgoodinternalorganizationandaclearconceptfororchestratingplanninganddesign,the
cityplannerscouldnothaveaccomplishedwhattheydidwithoutengagingthepeopleofCuritiba.According
totwo‐timeMayorCassioTaniguchi(inLeadbeater,2006)
Nomatterhowwellrunweare,westillwouldnothavealltheresourcesweneed.Wecanonlygetthoseresourcesbymobilizingmorepeopletoparticipateandtakeco‐responsibilityfordevisingsolutions.Wecannotorganizeourselvesinlinearwaysbecausepeopledonotlivetheirlivesinstraightlines.(p.236)
Witheachsituation,witheachprojectthattheplannersworkedon,theywouldseektodevelopthe
appropriatepartnershipwithkeystakeholdersinordertodevelopasharedsenseofcommitment,
stewardship,andinvestmentinitssuccess.Asoneintervieweeputsit,“everyproblemhasitsownequation
ofco‐responsibility.”Forexample,whentheplannersdevelopedtheirconceptofanabovegroundsubway‐
likesystemusingrapidtransitbusseswithdesignatedlanes,budgetconstraintswouldhavenormally
requiredbuyingthebussesslowlyovertime,whichwouldhavetakenyearsandyears.Instead,they
approachedprivatebuscompaniestodevelopajointpartnershipofco‐responsibility.Throughdialoguethey
developedapartnershipinwhichthecitywouldpayfortheimplementationandmaintenanceoftherapid‐
transitinfrastructureand,inaccordancewiththecompanies,wouldsetthefareandbusschedules.Thebus
companyinturnwouldprovidethebusesandchargeperkilometeroftravel.Bydevelopingthepartnership
inthisway,Curitibawasabletoimplementapublictransitsystemthattodayisrecognizedasaworld‐leading
model.Itcarriesover2.4millionpassengersperday,maintainslowfaresfortravelsothatpoorersegments
ofthepopulationcanuseit,doesnotcostthecityone‐centinsubsidies,andmakesahealthyprofitforprivate
buscompanies.Thisisanexampleofasuccessfulpartnershipofsharedresponsibility.
Whetheritwasgettingprivatebuscompaniestobeco‐responsibleforthesuccessofthetransit
system,orgettingyouthtobeco‐responsibleforthemaintenanceofparksthroughprogramsforgrowingand
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plantingtreesandflowers,orprovidingcartstoentrepreneurialhomelesspeopletocollectrecyclabletrash
inpublicareas,ineachcasethecitysoughttodomorebydoinglesswhilegrowingtheco‐commitmentof
others.AccordingtoTaniguchi(inLeadbeater,2006),“thesocialsystemwillonlyhaveagrowingimpactby
notgrowing,andsoencouragingbusiness,thevoluntarysector,andcitizenstotakemoreresponsibility”(p.
244).
Todevelopsuchequationsofco‐responsibility,however,requiresmorethanjustgoodnegotiation
skills.Itrequireswhatoneintervieweedescribesasaqualityof“solidarity”withthepeople.Accordingto
thisinterviewee,“WithsolidarityImeannotmanipulatingoneagainsttheother,it’shavingthepeopleinside
ofyou,ofunderstandingwhat’sthere.”Thissolidarityrequirescompassionateengagementwithpeopleand
theirplace,oflisteningtoandfindingoutwhatitisthattheyloveabouttheplaceinwhichtheylive,whatitis
theyidentifywith,andfindmeaninginbylivingthere.AsJaimeLerner(inMcKibben,1995)describedit
Youhavetohaveacertainkindofcomplicitywithpeoplewhenyou’retryingtounderstandwhataretheirproblems,whataretheirdreams.People,theyarenotlivinginthecityjustforsurvival.Youhavetolovethecity.Theyhavetohavethisrelationshipthathastodowithidentity,withasenseofbelonging.Therearesomeneighborhoodsthatdon’tevenhave[public‐transportationorschools],andthepeoplearehappy.Why?Becausetheirfatherlivedthere;theirgrandfatherlivedthere.There’sasenseofbelongingtoaplace.(p.99)
Understandingpeopleandwhatitisthatfeedstheirsenseofidentityandbelonginginaplace,
therefore,isakeyelementofsolidarity.But,solidarityinvolvesmorethanjustasharedsenseofidentityand
belonging.Italsorequiresunderstandingandrelatingtowhatitisthatpeoplearestrivingtoachieve,towhat
theirdreamsareindividuallyandcollectively.AsLerner(inMeadows,1995)statedit
Thereisnoendeavormorenoblethantheattempttoachieveacollectivedream.Whenacityacceptsasamandateitsqualityoflife;whenitrespectsthepeoplewholiveinit;whenitrespectstheenvironment;whenitpreparesforfuturegenerations,thepeoplesharetheresponsibilityforthatmandate,andthissharedcauseistheonlywaytoachievethatcollectivedream.(p.2)
Bydemonstratingthisrespectforallcitizens,thepoorestincluded,JaimeLernerandhisteamdevelopeda
leveloffaithandtrustwiththeircitizensthatisunheardofinmostmoderncities.Thesesamecitizens,in
turn,becamemorewillingandmotivatedtoacceptco‐responsibilityoftheircity’smission:“Theyarewilling
tobuildtheirownsimplehousing,especiallywithalittlearchitecturalcounselandutilityconnections.They
volunteerforenvironmentalprojects,theystartcottageindustries.Civiclifeflourishes”(Pierce,2000,p.1).
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UrbanAcupuncture
Buildingthefaithandtrustoftheircitizens,however,requiredmorethanjustsolidarity,italso
requiredgood,highlyeffectiveaction.AsJaimeLerner(inVaz&VazdelBello,2006)statedit,“Wewere
gainingthesupportfromthepopulationbyshowinganddoing.”Metaphorically,Lernerdepictsthisprocess
ofleverageddemonstrativeactionasoneofurbanacupuncture:“Icalliturbanacupuncture,whichiswhere
youfocusonkeypointsthatincreaseenergyandflow”(LernerinYoung,2008,p.1).Theideaofurban
acupunctureisthatwhileplanningtakestime,thereisalsoneedforimmediate,leveragedactionthatcanhelp
jump‐starttheprocessofregenerationwithinacommunity.Asoneintervieweeputit,“thewholeprocessof
planningtakestimeandithastotaketime.Butsometimesyoushouldn’twait.Thereissomefocalpoint
whereyoucandoitfastandyoucancreateanewenergythatcanhelpthewholeprocessofplanning.It’snot
insteadoftheprocessofplanning,it’stohelpithappen.”Andinthewordsofanother
Urbanacupuncturebeginswiththedevelopmentofagoodidea.Alotofpeoplethinkparticipationisjustaskingorhavingmeetings.Thisisokay,butyouhavetohaveanideatostart.It’slikeagame,sometimesit’sthecommunitythatstartsthegame,sometimesit’sthepoliticalleadersorsometimesit’saplanninggroup.Someonehastostart.Andwhentheycangobackandforth,myfeelingisinnovationisstarting.Withinnovation,there’sanunderstandingthatyoucannothavealltheanswers,youcannotbesoprescientashavingalltheanswers.Startandgivesomeroomtopeopletoreactandwiththisroomtheycancorrectyouifyouarenotontherighttrack.AndthathappensallthetimeinCuritiba.Wedidn’tstartwithaverygoodidea.Westartedwithoneideaandthenlittlebylittleweunderstoodthatthewholeprocessofplanningistrajectorywhereyoucancorrectalways.
Good,innovativeideas,therefore,werenotdevelopedstrictlyinabackroombyplanning
professionals.Rather,theyweredevelopedthroughcollaborativeanditerativeprocessesamongkey
stakeholders.Theyinvolvedaprocessoftakinginitialideaswhethertheycamefromtheplanners
themselves,fromcommunitymembers,orfromthird‐partygroupsandjump‐startingadialogueamong
stakeholderstorefinethemandbuildpoliticalwilltowardtheirmanifestation.Asoneplanner(inVaz&Vaz
DelBello,2006)notes,“Weareprofessionalswhobringprojectstocompletion.Wearenotpaperwork
professionals.”
Intheefforttodevelopgoodideas,JaimeLernerandhiscoreteamdevelopedasetofwhatthey
referredtoasobjectiveandsubjectivecriteriabywhichtoevaluateandrefinepotentialideas.Objectively,
15
successfulactionsandprojectsweredeemedthosethatwere:(1)simpleindesign(simplicity),(2)easilyand
quicklyimplemented(speed),and(3)inexpensive(frugality).Subjectively,fivemajorcriteriafordeveloping
andrefiningprojectswere:(1)human‐scale,(2)landscape,(3)life,(4)memory,and(5)continuity.These
objectiveandsubjectivecriteriaareexploredbelow.
ObjectiveCriteria
Simplicity.Simplicity,inthecontextofplanning,hastodowithrefininganideasothatitbecomesmoreand
morepaireddowntoitsessentialelements.Complexitycanoftenkillaproject,particularlywhenitis
unneededcomplexity.Furthermore,complexsolutionsoftenleadtoincreasingrelianceonexpertsand
professionalswithspecializedtraining.Incontrast,simplegrassrootssolutionscanempowerpeopletobe
increasinglyautonomousandcreativeintheirimplementationandongoingmanagement.Agoodexampleof
thisistheboardingstationsthatCuritibadevelopedfortheirrapidtransitbussystem.InworkingwithVolvo,
Curitibadevelopedasystemwherepeoplecouldenterglasstubesthatwerebuiltonsidewalks,paytheirfare
inadvanceasyouwouldatasubwaystation,andbereadytoboardinlargegroupswhenthebuscame.
Toenablethissystem,theCuritibanplannersworkedwithVolvotodesignbuseswithdoorsthat
wouldopenuplikeasubwaytrain.
Figure4.RapidTransitBusTubes
16
Oncetheysuccessfullydevelopedthebuses,anotherissuearose.Howwouldtheyensurethatthebusses
linedupexactlywiththeopeninginthetubestoensuresafepassageontoandoffthebusses?Volvosawthis
asanopportunitytopeddletheirsophisticatedengineering.Theywenttoworkondevelopingacomputer
systemthatwouldlineupthebuswiththetubewithprecision.Thecostofthesystem,however,wouldhave
beenalmostasmuchasthebusitself.GivenCuritiba’slimitedbudget,thiswasnotanacceptablesolution.
Moreover,itwouldonlyleadtoincreasingrelianceofVolvoforservicingandpartsreplacementthroughtime.
SowhatdidtheplannersofCuritibado?Theyturnedtotheirownhome‐grownexperts,thebus
driversthemselves.Accordingtooneinterviewee
Volvowantedtosellusthissystem.Itwasalmostasexpensiveasthebus.SoIcalledthechiefofdriversofthebuscompaniesandIaskedhim,“couldyouparkthisbi‐articulatedbusinthisboardingtube?”Hesaid,“ofcourseIcandoit.”“Youcandoit?”“Yes.”Hetookapieceoftapeandputitonthewindowofthebusandanotherpieceoftapeontheboardingtube.Andthemomenttheywereinthesameline,hestopped.Sincethen,they’veneverhadanaccident.
Aligningpiecesoftapetopositionthebusisanexampleofanelegantandsimplesolution.Itdidnot
requirecomplexcomputersystemsoramultitudeofpartsandoutsidesuppliersanditcostthecitynothing.
Yetiftheyhadn’tadheredtotheirmantraofsimple,elegantsolutions,theymayhavedeferredtoVolvoor
other“experts”tosupplythemwithasuperfluoussolution.AsLerner(inMcKibben,1995)putit,“It’svery
hardtounderstandsimplicity.Simplicityneedsakindofcommitment.Youhavetobesureofyourself.If
you’renot,you’lllistentothecomplexity‐sellers,andthecityisnotascomplexastheywouldlikeyouto
believe”(p.74).
Speed.Inadditiontosimplicity,successfulurbanacupuncturerequirestheabilitytoactswiftlyandproduce
substantialeffectsinarelativelyshortperiodoftime.Asoneintervieweestatesit
Ithinkspeedisimportant.Why?One,toavoidyourownbureaucracy.Oncethepoliticaldecisionisdone,youhavetodoitimmediately.Otherwise,it’slikeSundaybrunchwithahugefamily.Secondly,toavoidyourowninsecurity.Sometimesyouhaveagoodideabutyoustarttothinkitwon’tbepossible.Start.Juststart.
Inotherwords,whileplanningmaytaketime,actionshouldbequickanddecisive.Otherwise,the
politicalwillthatisbuiltupwillbesquandered.AsLerner(inMcKibben,1995)putit,“withspeedcomes
credibility”(p.75).
17
Thedowntownpedestrianshoppingareaisanexampleofthis.IfLernerandhisteamhadn’tbeen
abletotransformtheareainoneshortweekend,theyprobablywouldhavelosttheopportunitythrough
infightingwithlocalbusinessandauto‐rightslobbyists.Bycreatingameasurableeffectinsuchashort
periodoftime,theyinsteadwereabletowinoverthepopulousandlocalbusinessownersbecausetheycould
experiencethetangiblebenefitsofthetransformedarea.Thishelpedthemestablishtheircredibilityand
openeddoorstofurtherlonger‐termprojectswithinthecommunity.
Anotherexampleistheoperahouse,whichtheybuiltinonemonth.Thespeedwithwhichtheybuilt
it,alongwiththebeautyofthebuildingitself,allhelpedtocontributetothesenseofprideandpossibilityin
theircity.Itsincehasbecomeasymbolfortheircityandwhattheycanaccomplish.
Figure5.OperaHousebuiltintwomonthsoutofrecycledmetalpipinginanoldquarry
Frugality.Inadditiontosimplicityandspeed,frugalitywasathirdcriterionthatJaimeLernerandhisteam
usedtoevaluateandrefineideas.Accordingtooneinterviewee,acommitmenttofrugalityleadstoincreased
creativity:“Whenyouwantcreativity,justcutazerofromyourbudget.Justcutthezeroandsometimesif
youcuttwozeros,youhavemorecreativity.”Throughtheirvalueforfrugality,JaimeLernerandhisteam
alwayssoughttodevelopprojectsthatdrewfromtheexistingresourcesoftheircommunityratherthan
requiringtheimportationofnewones.Manyofthecity’sbuildingswerebuiltfromrecycledmaterials.In
fact,theyusedrecycledmaterialsbeforethetermsustainabilityhadevencomeintovogue.Thereason?It
madelogicalsensetosavemoneyandreuseavailableresources.
18
SubjectiveCriteria
Forurbanacupunctureprojectstobeeffective,however,morewasrequiredthanjustquick,simple,
andinexpensivesolutions.Inadditiontothesequantitativecriteria,JaimeLernerandhisteamalsosawthe
importanceofproducingparticularqualitativeeffectsthroughtheirinterventions.Suchprojectscouldnot
justbefunctionallyefficientandeffectiveintheirexecution,theyalsoneedtoberevitalizinginwaysthat
wouldrippleouttothesurroundingcommunity.AsLerner(2003)statedit
Ihavealwayshadtheillusionandthehopethat,withaprickoftheneedle,itwouldbepossibletocureillnesses.Tobeginrecuperatingtheenergyofasickortiredpointthroughasimpletouch,youhavetodealwiththerevitalizationofthispointaswellasitssurroundingarea.Ibelievethatsomemedicinal“magic”canandshouldbeappliedtocities,asmanyaresickandsomenearlyterminal.Aswellasthemedicineneededintheinteractionbetweendoctorandpatient,inurbanplanningitisalsonecessarytomakethecityreact;topokeanareainsuchawaythatitisabletohelpheal,improve,andcreatepositivechainreactions.Itisindispensableinrevitalizingintervention,tomaketheorganismworkinadifferentway.(p.1)
Intheefforttogeneratesuchrevitalizingeffectswiththeirinterventions,Lernerandhisteam
employedanumberofsubjectivecriteriatodevelopandrefineideas.Fivesuchcriteriaarediscussedbelow:
HumanScale.Thecriterionofhuman‐scaleinvolveslookingathowprojectsaffecthumanrelationships.Do
theyhelpsupportandenablemorehumanandhumaneinteractionsordotheyleadtoincreasedisolationand
dehumanization.Thepedestrianmallisanexampleofthis.Byblockingofftrafficandgettingpeopleoutof
theircars,Lernerandhisteamhelpedtocreatespaceinthedowntownforpeopletoslowdownandinteract
morethroughface‐to‐faceexchanges.
Landscape.Thecriterionoflandscapeinvolveslookingathowprojectsfitwithinandintegratewiththeir
surroundinglandscape.Architecturally,thisinvolveddevelopingstructuresthatdidnotcompete,orclash,
withexistingbuildingsandlandfeaturesbutrathersupportedandaccentuatedthecharacteroftheplace.
Withtransportation,eachmodalityoftransport,beitbicycle,bus,car,ortrain,neededadesignatedlane
throughthelandscape.Likewiththebuildings,theycannotcompetewitheachotherbutrathermust
integratetogetherseamlesslywhilesupportingtheautonomousfunctionsofeach.Withecology,thecity
19
plannerssoughtlikewisetointegratethefunctionsofthecitywiththecriticalenvironmentalcorridorsthat
ranthroughtheircitiesinwaysthatintegratedandsupportedtheworkingofeach.
Byturningtheseareasintoparks,theyallowedfortherivertocontinuetoflowandfloodnaturally
whilealsoprovidingasociallybeneficialfunctiontothecitythatdidnotcompetebutrathersupportedand
appreciatedthisnaturalflow.
Figure6.ForestedCorridorinthemidstofcity
Life.Thecriterionoflifeinvolveslookingatthelife‐generatingaspectsofaproject.Doestheprojectgenerate
newlifesocially,environmentally,and/oreconomicallyinanarea?Orisitdegenerativeinitseffect(e.g.,
throughpollution,economicdisparity,etc).Thedowntownmallisagoodexampleofthis.Throughits
transformation,socialandeconomiclifewasrevitalizedinthedowntown,centeredaroundstreetsandplazas
withcleanerair,outdoorinteractions,andbeautifularraysofflowersandtrees.Allinall,theeffectwaslife‐
generatingtothearea,notdepleting.
20
Memory.Thecriterionofmemoryinvolveshonoringandcelebratingtherootsofthecultureandplace.Does
theprojectcontributetoourunderstandingandappreciationofthehistoricrootsofaplace,toitssenseof
identityandoriginsthathavehelpedtomakeitwhatitistodayandwhatitcanpotentiallybecome
tomorrow?Asonecitydocumentexplains
Thewholeprocesswouldnothavetakenplaceandthediscoverywouldnothavebeenmade–togetherwiththeassertionofthisidentity–ifthecitycouldnotredeemitspastevenasitblazednewtrailsleadingtothefuturebyrevolutionizingitsurbanplanning,itspublictransportationsystem,itssocialandeconomicprofile,anditsphysicalscenery.Memoryistheanchor‐groundofidentity,andidentityisthefeelingofbelongingtoaplace.(Ribeiro&Tavares,1992,p.31)
Byemployingthecriteriaofmemory,JaimeLernerandhisteamsoughttodevelopprojectsthat
connectedandreinforcedpeoples’senseofidentity,loveofplace,andappreciationforthewisdomofpast
generations.
Continuity.Finally,thecriterionofcontinuityhelpstolookatwherefocalpointsforinterventionaremost
neededandhighlyleveragedwithinthelandscape.Continuitylooksatwheretheflowsofenergyand
exchangefluidlyoccurwithinthesystemandwheretheyareblockedordisjointed.Forthisreason,Lerner
andhisassociatesoftentargetedareasinthecitythatwerecutoff,underutilizedorignoredbythegeneral
flowofday‐to‐daycitylife.Thisincludedoldrockquarries,whichtheytransformedintobeautifulcultural
centers,andshanty‐townfavelas,whichtheysoughttoreconnecttotherestofthecitythroughtheirfood‐for
trashprogramsandyouth‐mentoringplantnurseries.
Thecriterionofcontinuitycanbeappliedtemporallyaswellasgeographically.AsLerner(2007b)
putit,“youcannothaveemptyplacesduring18hoursaday”(p.1).Forinstance,the24‐hourstreetproject
wasaninterventionthatJaimeLernerandhisassociatesmadetocreateincreasingcontinuityinthe
downtownsocialandeconomiclifefromdaytonight.Beforeit,lifeinthearealargelyshutdownafter
daytimeworkinghours.Byintroducingthe24‐hourstreet,theycreatedaneasilypolicedcenterinthe
downtownwherenightlifecouldflourish.Fromthissimpleinterventionthatbroughtpeopletothe
downtownatnight,furtherrestaurants,bars,andtheatresbegantostayopenlater,therebyexpandingthe
areaofnightlifewellbeyondtheoneblockcenter.
21
SystemicNetworkingandIntegration
ForJaimeLernerandhisteamtosuccessfullyengageinurbanacupuncture,however,requiredmore
thanjustdevelopmentofandactingongoodideas.Italsorequiredtheabilitytoseeandworkwiththeircity
atasystemiclevel.AsLerner(2007b)describedit,thecityislikeaturtleanditsshell.Youcannotcutitinto
isolatedpartsandworkontheminisolationwithoutdestroyingthequalityoflifeofthewhole.Asone
Curitibandocument(Ribeiro&Tavares,1992)explains,thecityisnotjustaseriesofisolatedfunctioning
parts,itis“alivingbeing”(p.10)thatisdynamicandgrowingasawhole.
Toworkwithagoodideainisolation,therefore,isahaphazardapproachinthatitdoesn’ttakeinto
accountthesystemicimplicationsandopportunitiesthatanysuchinterventioncreatesinrelationshiptothe
largerwhole.Rather,JaimeLernerandhisteamalwayssoughttolookatpossiblesolutionsinthecontextof
thenetworkofrelationshipsofwhichtheywereapartanduponwhichtheycouldhaveanimpact.Thisledto
thecreationoffarmoreintegrativeandsystemicsolutionsthanwouldotherwisehavebeenpossible.Agood
exampleofthiscanbeseeninCuritiba’sfoodfortrashprogram:
“[T]hecityhasbeenbuyingsurplusfoodfromfarmersinthesurroundingcountrysideandtradingitforbagsofgarbage–sixkilosoftrashboughtasackofrice,potatoes,beans,andbananas.Forakilomore,someeggs.Theprogrambeganin1989whenanoutbreakofleptopirosis,arat‐bornedisease,wasnotedintheslums.Becausethestreetsarenarrowandunpaved,thegarbagetruckshiredbythecitycouldn’tgetuptothemtocollecttrash,whichwaspilingupinthefavelas.Lerner’steammadeafewquickcalculations:howmuchwoulditcosttopaythegarbagehaulers(aprivateconcern)tocollectthetrashfromthecrowdedslums?Whentheyhadafigure,theydeterminedhowmuchfoodtheycouldbuyforthatsumandthenlettheslumdwellerscollectthetrashthemselvesandbringitdownoutofthefavelastothetrucks.Alongtheway,theprogrammanagestosupportsmallfarmerswhomightotherwisehavetoabandontheirfieldsandmigratetotown.(McKibben,1995,p.89)
Bythinkinginnetworkingterms,JaimeLerner’steamdevelopedacheap,simple,butingeniously
designed,solutionwhichaddressedanumberofdifferentsystemicissuesatonce,includingwaste
managementandrecycling,urbanghettoization,healthandnourishment,theeconomyofsmallfarmers,and
regionalmigrationflowsintothecity.
Anotherexampleofthissystemicwayofthinkingandworkingisthecityparks.Lackingthefundsto
buyupgreenspaceforcityparks,JaimeLernerandhisteaminsteadintegratedtheircityparkswiththecivic
watermanagementsystems.Theydidthisbyusingfederalfundsthatwereallocatedtowardfloodcontrol
22
solutionstobuyupthelandaroundtheirriversandstreams.Indoingso,theycreatedbothnaturalflood
controlsystemsandopengreenspacesforcivicrecreation(seephotosbelow).Inthisway,theyintegrated
thefunctionsofwaterresourcemanagementandpublicparksandrecreation.Furthermore,theygotchildren
involvedthroughschoolprogramsinthegrowingandplantingofflowersforthecityparks.Inthisway,they
evenfurtherintegratedthedifferentfunctioningarenasoftheircity.
Ineachcase,JaimeLernerandhisteamstartedwithasinglepressingproblem,whetheritwas
garbagecollectionorflooding.But,ratherthantrytosolveitinisolation,theylookedatitinrelationshipto
thelargerworkingsystemsofwhichitwasapart.Thisenabledthemtosuccessfullygeneratedesign
solutionsthatintegratedvariousfunctionsofthecitytogethertowardthemutualbenefitofthewhole.As
Lerner(inRibeiro&Tavares,1992)statedit,“(G)oodplanningwillencouragethebringingtogetherof
functions…acitythatregroupsitsfunctionswillsaveagreatdealofenergy”(p.7).Inotherwords,by
integratingfunctions,Curitibanplannerswereabletosavebothenergyandresourceswhilemaximizingthe
systemicbenefitsoftheirinitiatives.
Figure7.NaturalFloodControlPark
23
GenerativeCenters
Byintegratingfunctionsthroughurbanacupuncture‐likeinterventions,JaimeLernerandhiscore
teamalwayssoughttomaximizethegenerativecapacitiesoftheircitizenstoparticipateinandcontributeto
thelifeandwellbeingoftheircommunity.Thus,educationprogramswereanintegralaspectoftheirsuccess.
Ratherthanorganizingsuchprogramsinageneralized,one‐size‐fits‐allapproach,however,JaimeLernerand
histeamfocusedinsteadondevelopingsmall,simpleprogramsthatweredirectlytailoredandlinkedtothe
specificneedsandgenerativepotentialsofagivenneighborhoodandpopulationgroupinthecity.
Ineachcase,theyworkedonorganizingeducationalprogramswiththesegroupsandneighborhoods
throughthedevelopmentofenergizingcenters(i.e.,acupuncturefocalpoints)thatengagedandelevated
peoples’abilitiestoworkandcontributetothecityasawhole.Someexamplesofgeographicalcenters,
wheretheydevelopedacupuncture‐likeprojectstoelevateandeducatetheircitizens,were:thedowntown
pedestrianmall,thebotanicalgardens,theopenamphitheatre,thelighthousecenters(library/educational
centers)ineachneighborhood,the24‐hourstreet,theenvironmentaluniversity,andyouth‐mentoringplant
nurseriesinthefavelas(McKibben,1995;Hawkenetal.,1999).Ineachcase,JamieLernerandhiscoregroup
sawtheenergizingcenterashavingthepotentialtouniquelycontributetothecityasawhole.Andineach
case,theysoughttoorganizeprogramsandprojectsinwaysthatwouldhelpmaximizethegenerative
potentialsofeachofthesecenters.
Forinstance,theysawthatbyblockingoffautomobiletraffictothedowntown,theycouldmaximize
moreoftheuniquevaluepotentialwhichthatspacehadtoofferthecity,oneofelevatinghumaninteraction
andcamaraderie(Ribeiro&Tavares,1992).Todothis,theyhadtoprovidecertainmaterialresources,i.e.,
thestonetolaythewalkways,theflowerstoplantintheflowerbeds,andthelamppoststoprovidea
particularnatureoflighting.Inaddition,theyhadtoprovidecertainhumanresourcesinaneducativerolein
ordertohelpfacilitatethetransformationofthedowntownmall.Thus,forinstance,theyorganizedthe
childrentopaintmuralsinthestreetsinordertothwartapotentiallydivisivedemonstrationbyautomobile
drivers.ByorganizingthiseventanditssubsequentreenactmentseverySaturday,thecivicleadershave
helpedtoeducateandremindpeopleoftheirvaluepriorities(i.e.,childrenandhumanrelationshipstake
priorityoverautomobilesandindividualisticconvenience)(McKibben,1995).
24
AnotherexampleofCuritiba’seducatingorganizationcanbeseenintheirdevelopmentoflow‐
incomehousing.Ratherthenfollowingtheconventionalrouteofbuildinglow‐incomehousingforthepeople,
Curitiba’scitygovernmentprovidedtheresourcesandthesupportsystemtolow‐incomefamiliessuchthat
theythemselvescouldbuildtheirhouses.Thecitygovernmentprovidedtheland,themoneyforbuilding
supplies,twotrees,andanhourofconsultingtimewithacityarchitect.Functionallyspeaking,thenetresult
ofthisprogramwasthatthesepeoplegottheirlow‐incomehousingandthecitysavedthemselvesthelabor
costs.Evenmoreimportantly,however,wastheenergizingenablementofthesepeople’scapacitiestobuild
theirownhomesandneighborhoods.Whatcouldhavebeenaverymonotonousand,energy‐wise,flat
neighborhoodoflow‐incomehousingdevelopmentsbecameinsteadthestartofanotheruniquelyenergizing
neighborhood(i.e.,center)inthecity.Andtherefore,throughthisprocess,thesepeople’sfuturegenerative
potentialasvalue‐addingcitizensofCuritibawaslifted.
YetanotherexampleofCuritiba’sorganizationcanbeseeninthedevelopmentoftheirOpen
UniversityoftheEnvironment.Throughthisuniversity,thecivicleadersoffered(andstilloffertothisday)
freebasiccoursesthatintroducepeopletothenatureofthinkingprocessesthathavestimulatedthecity’s
growthandevolution.Thoughanyonecouldcome,thecitysought,inparticular,coregroupsofpeople
organizedaroundparticularnaturesofwork,whattheycalltheopinionmakersofthecity.Withthese
groups,theytailoredthecoursetofittheirparticularfocusofwork.Onesuchgroupwasthetaxidrivers.The
taxidriverswereinitiallyconcernedaboutlosingbusinesstothenewlydevelopedpublictransportation
system.Curitiba’scivicleaders’responsewastotrytoreorientthetaxidriverstowardadifferentnatureof
aim.Byhelpingthemshiftfromafocusjustonphysicaltransporttothinkingabouttourism,theywereable
toseehowtheycouldelevatetheirpotentialearningsinawaythatalsoaddedincreasedvaluetothecity.
Ineachoftheseexamples,thecitydevelopededucationalsupportsystemsfortheirpeople.Eachof
thesesupportsystemsweredevelopedand/ortailoredtofocusontheneedsofparticulargroupsandcenters
withinthecity.Byprovidingthemmaterialandmentoringresources,thesesystemshelpedtoupgradethe
energyandthinkingcapacitiesofpeople.Inthisway,byupgradingthepeople’scapacitieswithinthese
centers,theyhavehelpedtoelevateandextendtheuniquegenerativepotentialthateachofthesecenters
bringtothecity.
25
InfrastructureforAnEvolvingLegacy
OneofthemoststrikingaspectsofCuritiba’sregenerationisitslongevity.Foroverthirtyyears,
Curitibahascontinuedtoberecognizedasaleadinginnovatorinurbanplanningandrenewal.Infact,allsix
mayorsthatservedbetween1976(theendofLerner’sfirstterm)and2008,includingoneoutspoken
opponentofLerner’s,followedandhelpedadvancethesamecoursethatLernerandhisassociatesstarted
(Hawkenetal.,1999;Stevens&Arruda,2008).Almostallofthemhaveapproachedtheircity’sproblems
withthesimilarspiritofcreativedesigncollaborationwiththeircitizens:
Fiveofthesix[mayorsfrom1976to1999]werearchitects,engineers,orplannerswhotreatedthecityanditspoliticalleadershipasadesignproblem,continuouslyunfoldingasthecity’s1965masterplansheditsrigiditiesandevolvedtomeetchangingneeds.Thosesixmayors’twenty‐eightyears(andcounting)ofgoodmanagementhavegeneratedaflowofinterconnected,interactive,evolvingsolutions–mostlydevisedandimplementedbypartnershipsamongprivatefirms,non‐governmentalorganizations,municipalagencies,utilities,communitygroups,neighborhoodassociations,andindividualcitizens.Curitibaisnotatop‐down,mayordominatedcity;everyonerespectsthefactthat,whileitisservedbyleaders,manyofthebestideasandmostoftheirimplementationcomeformitscitizens.Itencouragesentrepreneurialsolutions.(Hawkenetal.,1999,p.290)
Thissuccess,inlargepart,isduetothedevelopmentofacityinfrastructureandculturethathas
workedtocontinuouslyevolveitsplanningandmanagementprocesses.Oneofthekeyorganizingcentersof
thisinfrastructureisIPPUC(InstitutedePesquisaePlanejamentoUrbanodeCuritiba),whichisCuritiba’s
officialresearchandurbanplanninginstitute.Thisorganization,ofwhichLernerandmanyofhiscoreteam
associateshavebeenpresidentatonetimeoranother,hasbeentheon‐goingcenterforgeneratingmanyof
Curitiba’snewandinnovativedesignideas.Inacitythatiseverchanging,theIPPUChasbeenapresenceof
continuitythroughoutCuritiba’stransformation.Infact,“themayor,departmentheads,andstaffinvolvedin
currentlyhotissuesmeetthereeveryThursdayforafrankexchangeonhowtokeepmultiplecityprojects
moving”(Pierce,2000,p.2).Throughthison‐goingworkingrelationshipbetweentheIPPUCandcity
officials,continuityintheoveralldirectionofCuritiba’stransformationanddevelopmenthasbeenlargely
maintainedthroughsucceedingadministrations.
WhatisnoteworthyabouttheIPPUCisitsdynamicapproachtomasterplanning.Incontrastto
manycities,whichdevelopaMasterPlanandthenreviewandreviseiteveryfivetotenyears(Rosser,1970;
26
Mousalli,1992),Curitiba’sIPPUCwasdevelopedtoreviewandrevisetheMasterPlanonayear‐to‐yearbasis.
Assuch,theIPPUCiscontinuouslyinvolvedinmonitoringandassessingtheeffectsoftheirprojectsaswellas
trackingoveralltrendsandtrajectoriesasmeansfordeliveringon‐goingfeedbackforrevisingandevolving
themasterplan.Thisinasensecreatesadynamicandevolvingplanningprocessasopposedtoarigidified
planthatissetandfollowedforyearstocome.
KeepingtheStoryAlive
Curitibacontinuestofacechallengestoitssustainedsuccessasaninnovativeleader.Itsworld‐
renownedpublictransportationsystemsareaging.Urbangrowthhasspreadbeyondthecity’sgoverning
jurisdictiontoneighboringmunicipalitiesthatdon’tnecessarilyholdthesameethosorplanning
infrastructureasdoesCuritiba.Theseinhabitants,whiletaxpayingmembersofothermunicipalities,use
Curitiba’spublictransportationsystemtogettojobswithinCuritiba.Inaddition,gatedcommunitiesare
beingdevelopedontheoutskirtsofCuritiba(Irazabal,2005)inwaysthatthreatenthecommunity‐sharing
ethosthathashelpedmakeCuritibawhatitistoday.YetthesepressuresonCuritiba’scityinfrastructure
todayarenogreaterthanwhatcityplannershavefacedinthepast.
ThequestionofwhetherCuritibacancontinuetosustainandevolveitslegacyasleaderinurbanand
regionalregenerationrestsmoreonwhetherornotitcanmaintainandgrowitsplanningculturefor
innovationandsystemicthinking.OneofthemajorquestionsthatnowfacesCuritibaiswhetherornotitcan
passthisculturallegacyontothenextgenerationofleaders.Allthemembersofthecoreteamthathelpedto
seedCuritiba’srevolutionarenowretiringfrompublicoffice.Themayorthatisnowinpower,whilehighly
alignedwiththevisionofLerner’steam,isthefirstofthisnewgeneration.Willheandotherswhosucceed
himcontinuetoplaceemphasisontheimportanceofbalancingneedsandpotentialsbymeetingevery
morningtoworkonthelargervisionofCuritiba’sevolution?Willtheycontinuetoworkonitssystemic
improvement,orwilltheymerelymaintainwhatwasgeneratedbeforethem?Willtheycontinuetoholdthe
cityanditspeopledearlyintheirheartsthroughasenseofrealsolidarity?Thesequestionscanonlybe
answeredthroughtime.
27
CriticalPerspectives
Whilethiscasenarrativehasbeenfocusedonstudyingthesuccesspatternsofurbanplanningin
Curitiba,itshouldbenotedthat,aswithanyurbancommunity,Curitibaalsohasitsweaknessesandcritics.
AccordingtoHawkenetal.(1999),“Curitibahassignificantproblemsstillaheadofit:Athirdofmetro‐region
housesareunsewered,8percentofitscitizensstillliveinslums…andnearlyhalfitschildrenarenotyet
completinggradeschool”(p.307).AbigfactorinthissituationisthatbecauseofCuritiba’ssuccesses,it
“attractsmuchofthesurroundingmiseryofsouthernBrazil,andcannotpossiblyhandleitall”(Hawkenetal.,
1999,p.307).Inaddition,asmentionedearlier,urbangrowthhasspreadbeyondtheboundsofthe
municipality’scontrolandgatedcommunitiesarebeingdevelopedontheoutskirtsofCuritiba(Irazabal,
2005)inwaysthatthreatenthecommunity‐sharingethos.Ataplanningprocesslevel,criticismhasbeen
madethatthecitizenparticipationprocesshasnotbeeninclusiveenoughandthatitcaterstoomuchtothe
interestsofbusiness‐elites(Irazabal,2002).
Inspiteoftheseweaknesses,however,Hawkenetal.(1999)proclaimsthat
Perhaps[Curitiba’s]mostimpressiveachievementisthatasimplephilosophyandpersistentexperimentationandimprovementhavecreatedaFirstWorld[ecological‐minded]cityinthemidstoftheThirdWorldbreakingwhatLernercallsthe‘syndromeoftragedy’thatparalyzesprogress,andreplacingitwithdignityandhope…TheexistenceofCuritibaholdsoutthepromisethatitwillbefirstofastringofcitiesthatredefinethenatureofurbanlife.”(p.308)
28
CASESUMMARYANALYSIS
Thecentralresearchquestionofthisstudywas:Whatarethecriticalinternalandexternalsuccess
factorsforimplementingaregenerativeplanningprocesswithinanurbancommunity?Basedonthe
researchdatacollectedandthroughtheprocessofcollating,analyzing,andconvertingthisdataintothecase
narrativepresentedabove,thefollowingcriticalsuccessfactorshavebeendeducedandaresummarized
below.
InternalSuccessFactors
Thefollowingisalistofsomeofthecriticalinternalleadershipcapabilitiesthattheleadplannersof
Curitibadevelopedinthemselvesand/orintheirteaminordertosuccessfullycarryoutregenerative
planningprocesses.Forthepurposesofthisstudy,internalleadershipcapabilitiesaredefinedasthe
psychologicalmeansbywhichapersonand/orgroupordersandorganizestheirthinkinginordertoleada
particularprocessatagivenstandardofquality.Thisinvolveslookingatboth‘howonethinks’and‘whatone
thinksabout’inordertosuccessfullycarryoutthisprocess.
1. Balancingneedsandpotentials.CriticaltoJaimeLernerandhisteam’ssuccesswastheirabilitytokeepa
dailybalancebetweendeep,visioningworkandon‐the‐groundpragmatism.
2. Alwayslearning,alwaysimproving.JaimeLernerandhisteamalwaysworkedonimprovement,bothin
theirowncapacitiesandintheircity’soperationalandgoverningsystems.
3. Knowingandlovingyourvillage.Coretotheirabilitytodevelopsuccessfulsolutionsthatspoketothe
heartsoftheirpeopleandtheirplace,wastheircontinuallydeepeningrelationshipwithplace.When
askedwhatexampleCuritibaofferstherestoftheworld,JaimeLerner(inMcKibben,1995)answeredas
follows
29
Themoreyoustudyyourowncondition,thedeeperyougetinyourownreality,themoreuniversalyouare.Tolstoysaid,‘ifyouwanttobeuniversal,singyourvillage.’Thisistrueinliterature,it’strueinmusic…Andit’strueincities,too.Youhavetoknowyourvillageandyouhavetoloveit.(p.115)
Thiscaringrelationshiptoplaceincludesmorethanjustaconnectiontoitspeoplesandtheirhistories.It
alsoentailsdevelopingaheart‐feltrelationshipwiththelandscapeitself,withtherivers,thetrees,and
thebirdsthathaveshapedandcontinuetoshapetheidentityofCuritibaanditsregion.
4. Solidaritythroughcompassion.JaimeLernerandhisteamsoughttounderstandandcareforthedreams
andneedsoftheirpeople.Theydidthisbydevelopingafeltsenseofcompassionandsolidaritywith
theircitizens,bylisteningtoandfindingoutwhatitisthattheyloveabouttheplaceinwhichtheylive,
whatitistheyidentifywithandfindmeaninginthroughlivingthere,whatitistheyareaspiringtocreate
intheirlives,andwhatitisthatispreventingthemfromdoingthis.
5. Interpretingthecollectivedream.Criticaltotheirsuccesswastheirabilitytotranslatethedreamsoftheir
peopleintoactionableconceptsandprojects,onesthatspoketoandelevatedthespiritandcollectivewill
oftheircity.This,inturn,helpedtodevelopthepoliticalwillandtrustoftheirpeople,sothattheycould
workonmoreextensivechangesinthesystem.
6. Generatingafieldofcoresponsibility.JaimeLernerandhisteamsoughttodevelopprojectsand
programsintheircityinpartnershipwiththeircitizens,inwaysthatgrewasharedinvestmentinand
responsibilityfortheirsuccess.Criticaltothisapproachwastheirpersonalcommitmentandsenseofco‐
responsibility.Itwas,toalargedegree,theirdedicationandwillingnesstomakethingshappenthat
helpedwinoverotherstotheircauses.
7. Lessresources,moreresourcefulness.JaimeLernerandhisteamalwayssoughttominimizetheirandtheir
citizens’relianceonoutsideresourcesbyinsteadfocusingonsolutionsthatharnessedandelevatedthe
intrinsicresourcesoftheirpeopleandplace.Thisinternalizedrestrainttorelianceonoutsideresources
wasakeyelementintheirabilitytogeneratesustainable,place‐basedsolutions.
30
8. Asystemsnetworkingmind.JaimeLernerandhisteam’sabilitytolookbeyondtheexternallymanifesting
problemtothesystemicworkingsunderlyingitwascriticaltotheirabilitytogeneratenew,systemic
solutions.Bythinkinginsystemicandenergicterms,theywereabletoseelinksandpotentiallinks
betweentheoperatingsystemsoftheircity,thusenablingthemtodevelopintegrativesolutionsand
leveraginginterventionsatkeyfocalpointsthatsavedthecityenergyandresources.
9. Creativityandfun.IfJaimeLernerandhisteamhadnotbeendoingwhattheylovedandhadfundoingit,
theywouldnothaveaccomplishedallthattheydid.AccordingtoLerner(inMcKibben,1995),thesecret
tocreativityis“tohavefun.Allmylife,wehavefun.We’relaughingallthetime.We’reworkingon
thingsthatmakeushappy”(p.78).
ExternalSuccessFactors
Thefollowingisadescriptionofsomeofthecriticalexternalprocesselementsthattheleadersof
Curitibaincorporatedintotheirplanningprocess.Forthepurposesofthisstudy,externalsuccessfactorsare
definedastheexplicatestepsengagedinbyapersonand/orgroupinordertoimplementaparticular
processatagivenstandardofquality.Thisinvolveslookingat‘whatonedoes’inordertosuccessfullycarry
outthisprocess.
1. Buildingafieldofrealization.OneofthecriticaldimensionstoCuritiba’sregenerativeplanningprocess
wastheirinvestmentintocontinuouslydeepeningtheirvisionandunderstandingoftheirplaceandits
potential.Thisincludedthefollowingthreeelements:
• Buildinganoperationalinfrastructureforworkingthatincorporatedmuchmoretimefor
creativevisioning/charrettingversuslinearproblemsolvingthroughspecializeddepartments.
• Studyingthehistoricalandpresentworkingsoftheurbanandecologicalsystemsasameansfor
developingacoreunderstandingofthecityandplace(i.e.,howitreallyworksandhasworked
throughtimeandwhatitisworkingtowards)andtranslatingthisintoacoreconceptforguiding
31
cityplanning.ThisiswhatLerner(inMcKibben,1995)referstoasthepracticeof“strange
archeology”(p.68).
• Engagingcitizensinco‐responsibleplanningandmanagement.Thisinvolvesintegratingkey
stakeholders(bothpublicandprivate)intosolutionfindingdialoguesanddevelopingequations
ofco‐responsibilitywherebymutuallybeneficialjoint‐partnershipsaredevelopedtocarryout
thesesolutions.
2. Regeneratingcivicbehavioralpatternsthroughurbanacupuncture.Asecondcriticalparalleldimensionof
Curitiba’sregenerativeplanningprocesswastheirworktoorchestrateleveragedinterventionsthat
helpedtorectifycurrentandforeseenproblemswhileatthesametimeintroducinghigherorderwork
patternsinkeysectorsandareasoftheircity.Thisdimensionincludedthefollowingthreeelements:
• Identifyingkeyfocalpointsinthesystemforleveragingchangeanddevelopinggood
interventionideasthatcaptureandelevatethedreamsofthepeople
• Refiningandupgradingtheleveragingpotentialoftheseprojectsbysystemicallylinking
functionssothateachinterveningsolutionworksonandintegratesmultiplesystems.
• Developingeducationalsupportsystemsinrelationshiptoeachprojectasameansforelevating
thedistinctivegenerativepotentialofagivenenergycenteranditspeople.
3. Growingalegacy.AthirdcriticalandconcurrentlyoccurringdimensionofCuritiba’sregenerative
planningprocesswastheirworktoinstituteaplanningstructureandculturethatfostersongoing
innovationandevolution.Twocriticalelementstothisdimensionare:
• Developingalivingmasterplanandplanninginfrastructurethatseekstocontinuallyimproveits
iterativeloopsofdesignandfeedbackbetweencommunitymembersandcityplanners.
• Educatingfuturegenerationsofleadersbyintegratingthemintothecoreteamplanningprocess
andculture,sothatcivicplanningwisdomispassedfromgenerationtogeneration.Itisunclear
whetherthislastelementoccurredinCuritibaandtowhatdegree.
32
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