Handbook Energizing: Manual sobre Biocombustíveis e agricultura familiar nos países em desenvolvimento

8/2/2019 Handbook Energizing: Manual sobre Biocombustveis e agricultura familiar nos pases em desenvolvimento

1/265


2/265


3/265

ANNA GREV

LORENZO BARBANTI

SIMONE FAZIO

Handbook on Biofuels and FamilyAgriculture in Developing Countries

PTRON EdITOREBOLOGNA 2011

Cooperation that countsThis project is funded by the European Union.

The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of GVC and can in no way be taken

to reect the views of the European Union.


4/265

Copyright 2011 by Ptron editore - Quarto Inferiore - Bologna

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or published in any formor in any way, electronically, mechanically, by print, photoprint, microlm or anyother means without prior written permission from the publisher.

First edition, september 2011

PTRON Editore - via Badini, 12Quarto Inferiore, 40057 Granarolo dellEmilia (BO)Tel. 051.767 003Fax 051.768 252e-mail: [email protected]://www.patroneditore.comA complete catalogue is available on our website. It is possible to perform searches byauthor, title, subject matter and series. For each volume a short summary is availableas well as the front cover and a brief description for new publications.

Layout: DoppioClickArt - San Lazzaro di Savena (Bo)Printed for Ptron editore by: Litograa Zucchini, Bologna

FSC certied gloss coated paper from mixed sources, containing 50% recycled rawmaterial and 50% FSC virgin bre.


5/265


6/265


7/265

Content

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pag. 11List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Symbols an Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

PART I - General IntroductIonto BIofuels 171 Introuction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.1 Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.1.1 Bioethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.1.2 Bioiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221.1.3 Biofuels - state of the art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 General Characterisation an Applications of Plant Oils anBioiesel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272.1 Plant Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272.2 Bioiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

PART II - oIl crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Oil Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.1 Oil Palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.1.1 Botanical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.1.2 Crop Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403.1.3 Cropping Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.2 Other Palm Species for Oil Prouction . . . . . . . . . . . . 413.2.1 Macaba or Macaw Palm (Acrocomia aculeata

(Jacq.) Lo. ex Mart.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.2.2 Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.) . . . . . . . . . 45

3.3 Jatropha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483.3.1 Botanical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.3.2 Crop Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503.3.3 Cropping Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50


8/265

8 Content

3.4 Castorbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pag. 523.4.1 Botanical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533.4.2 Crop Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.4.3 Cropping Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563.5 Sunower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.5.1 Botanical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593.5.2 Crop Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603.5.3 Cropping Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.6 Soybean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643.6.1 Botanical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653.6.2 Crop Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663.6.3 Cropping Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.7 Oilsee rape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693.7.1 Botanical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693.7.2 Crop Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713.7.3 Cropping Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4 Ientication of Suitable Plants for Oil Prouction in de-penence on Climate an Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754.1 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754.2 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

5 Optimization of Crop Farming in depenence on the LocalPreconitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835.1 Oil Palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835.2 Coconut palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875.3 Jatropha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945.4 Castorbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985.5 Sunower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025.6 Soybean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

6 General Logistic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096.1 Characteristic an Critical Issues of Bioiesel Sup-

ply Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

PART III - process technoloGy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157 Technology of Plant Oil Prouction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

7.1 Oil Sees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177.2 Pulp Fats an Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197.3 Crue Plant Oil Rening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

8 Technology of Bioiesel Prouction from Plant Oils . . . . . 1278.1 Raw Materials for Bioiesel Prouction . . . . . . . . . . . 127

8.1.1 Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278.1.2 Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129


9/265

Content 9

8.2 Prouction Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pag. 1308.3 General description of a Bioiesel Process . . . . . . . . 131

9 Aherence of Stanars for Engine Applications . . . . . . . . 135

9.1 European Bioiesel Stanar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359.2 US Bioiesel Stanar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1419.3 Other Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

PART IV - socIal, envIronmentaland economIc aspects . . . . 14710 Current Biofuels Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

10.1 Policy Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15010.2 Biofuels in the European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

10.3 Main barriers for the market penetration an interna-tional trae of bioenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15411 Social Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

11.1 Case Stuies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16011.1.1 The dOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16011.1.2 The dONTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

12 Socioeconomic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16712.1 Guar rail for securing access to sufcient foo . . . . . 168

12.1.1 Access to foo for all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16812.1.2 Lan nee epens on nutrition style an lan

prouctivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16812.1.3 Guar rail for securing access to moern energy

services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16912.1.4 Guar rail for avoiing health risks through

energy use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16912.1.5 Aitional socioeconomic sustainability require-

ments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16912.2 Impacts of Large Scale Expansion of Biofuels on

Global Poverty an Income distribution . . . . . . . . . . 171

12.3 Biofuels: Trae-offs in welfare an foo security . . . . 17312.3.1 Maximizing welfare gains in biofuel prouction

moels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17512.3.2 Policy implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

13 Introuction into Foo vs. Fuel discussion an possible So-lution Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18113.1 The Foo vs. Fuel Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18113.2 Other Factors Inuencing Foo Market Prices . . . . . . 18313.3 Foo an Fuel Sustainable Prouction . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

14 Environmental Impact of Oil Crops an Biofuels . . . . . . . . 187


10/265

10 Content

14.1 Methoology for the Assessment of EnvironmentalImpacts deriving from the Cultivation of Oil Cropsfor Energy Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pag. 187

14.2 Crale to Farm Gate Environmental Impact Assess-ment of Oil Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

14.3 direct an Inirect Lan-Use Change from Biofuels . . 20115 Biofuels: Towars an Ethical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Ethical Framework: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20515.1 Moral values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

15.1.1 Human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20615.1.2 Soliarity an the common goo . . . . . . . . . . 20815.1.3 Sustainability, stewarship an intergeneration-

al justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20915.1.4 A note on precautionary approaches . . . . . . . . 21015.2 Ethical biofuels: six Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

16 Risk Governance Guielines for Bioenergy Policies . . . . . . 21916.1 Bioenergy: Policy Coherence an Integration . . . . . . 21916.2 Bioenergy: Opportunities an Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

16.2.1 Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22016.2.2 Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

16.3 Risk governance guielines for bioenergy policies. . . 22516.3.1 Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22516.3.2 Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

16.4 development of a ecision support tool for the assess-ment of biofuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

17 Certication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23517.1 Overview of Ongoing Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

17.1.1 National an supra-national policies . . . . . . . . 23617.1.2 International Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23917.1.3 Companies, NGO an Inepenent Associa-

tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

17.1.4 Meta-stanar approach: sustainability stan-ars for feestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

17.2 A broa iversity of methoologies an approaches . . 24317.3 Examples of Certication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

18 Economic Aspects: Assessment of Cropping Costs an NetIncomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24718.1 Methoology for Cropping Cost Assessment . . . . . . . 24718.2 Costs an Net Incomes in Large Scale an Family

Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255


11/265

Preface

Energy is the riving force on our planet. But the worl is growing attwo ifferent spees. Wealthy countries consumemore than 50% of theworls total energy whereas the poorest countries consume only 4% of it:1.6 billion people o not have access to electricity an more than 2 billionepen on biomass stoves for heating an cooking.

Energizing Development project is co-fune by the European Com-mission an it is a sensibilisation campaign at international level promot-ing new opportunities to reuce this huge energy gap.

Energizing development eals with two global challenges:- Fight against poverty an Millennium development Goals formulat-

e by Unite Nation in 2000. Access to renewable an sustainable energyis funamental for poverty reuction, improve health, gener equalityan sustainable management of natural resources. Ensure to every personthe same right of living a ecent, safe an healthy life. Reuce poverty.Achieve sustainable evelopment.

- Climate Change an Kyoto process. Energy use is preicte to in-crease rapily in many parts of the eveloping worl, where use of energyhas been very low until now. In orer to meet sustainability goals, in par-ticular the reuction of greenhouse gas emissions agree uner the Kyoto

Protocol, it is therefore essential to n ways of reucing emissions anuse green energy.

The Handbook on Biofuels and Family Agriculture in DevelopingCountries is a key tool evelope within Energizing development project,representing a main asset for the general public an the specic stake hol-ers living in eveloping countries aroun the worl. The Hanbook cov-ers a vast array of topics, focusing on oils an bio-iesel prouce fromcrop plants growing in tropical an warm areas. In the rst part, a generalescription of plant characteristics, cycle an cropping technique is given

for annual an perennial oil crops. The technology in the process of oilextraction, storage an eventual transformation into bioiesel is the secon


12/265

12 Preface

main area of the Hanbook, with particular emphasis in the avantages anisavantages in oils an biofuel use, an in the aherence to internationalstanars. The thir part of the Hanbook covers the social, economic an

environmental issues: the foo vs. fuel controversy is aresse, an solu-tion strategies are iscusse. At last, the environmental rawbacks eter-mine by biofuels are analyse through a Life Cycle Assessment approach,in orer to inicate the least environmental impacting options.

June 9, 2011 Stefania PiccinelliGVC Italy


13/265

List of Contributors

Stefania Piccinelli GVC (Civil Voluntary Group)Bologna, Italy

Lorenzo Barbanti Research Group on inustrial Crops (GRiCI) de-partment of Agro-environmental Science an Tech-nology (diSTA)University of Bologna, Italy

Simone Fazio Research Group on inustrial Crops (GRiCI) de-partment of Agro-environmental Science an Tech-

nology (diSTA)University of Bologna, Italy

Anna Grev Business Unit BiofuelsFraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety anEnergy Technology UMSICHTOberhausen, Germany

Eliza Teoorescu ALMA-ROBucharest, Romania

Ioana Ciuta TERRA Mileniul IIIBucharest, Romania

dan Craioveanu Transylvania Eco ClubCluj-Napoca, Romania

Joo Jos Fernanes OIKOSQueijas, Portugal

Jos Lus Monteiro OIKOS

Queijas, Portugal


14/265


15/265

Symbols and Abbreviations

Lowercase Lettersm mass

Capital Letters

R organic rest (in a molecule)

Abbreviations

AOE aqueous oil extractionB100 pure bioieselBX blen of fossil iesel an bioiesel with a share of X% bioieselBtL Biomass to LiquiCF carbon footprintCFPP col lter plugging pointClFC-11 chloro-uoro-carbons 11CN cetane numberCP clou pointdALY isability ajuste life yearsdHA ocosahexaenoic aciEEA European Environment Agency

EPA eicosapentaenoic aciETBE ethyl tertiary butyl etherFA fatty aciFAEE fatty aci ethyl esterFAME fatty aci methyl esterFFA free fatty acisFFB fresh fruit bunchesFId ame ionisation etectorFQd Fuel Quality directive

GAME gas assiste mechanical expressionGC gas chromatography, -ical


16/265

16 Symbols and Abbreviations

GHG greenhouse gasGWP global warming potentialHSGC hea space gas chromatography

HT hyrotreatingHVO hyrogenate/hyrotreate vegetable oilIBA inole-3-butyric aciICP inuctively couple argon plasma emission spectroscopyIEA International Energy AgencyILUC inirect lan use changeISCC International Sustainability an Carbon CerticationIV ioine valueK2O potassium oxie (potash)

LCA life cycle assessmentLCI life cycle inventoryLCIA life cycle impact assessmentMSTFA N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)triuoroacetamie

N nitrogenOECd Organisation for the Economic Co-operation an developmentOLd ozone layer epletionP2O5 phosphorus oxiePAF potentially affecte fractionPdF potentially isappeare fractionPME palm methyl esterPP pour pointPPO pure plant oilPUFA polyunsaturate fatty acisRBd rene, bleache, eooriseREd Renewable Energy directiveRME oilsee rape methyl esterSCE supercritical carbon ioxie extraction methoSME soybean methyl ester

TG triglycerieTPP three-phase partitioning extraction methoUFO use frying oilsUV ultra-violet


17/265

PART IGeneral Introduction

to Biofuels


18/265


19/265

1 Introduction

There are unequivocal signs that climate change is a serious threat fac-ing the planet (Ragauskas et al., 2006). The rise of carbon ioxie emis-sions by about 80% between 1970 an 2004 was primarily ue to fossilfuel use (IPCC, 2007), an, to a lesser extent, to lan-use change (Ku-charik et al., 2001). As a result, the global temperature pattern over timeresembles a thin hockey stick (Mann et al., 1998), in which we presentlyare at the highest recor. Even worse, a sharper rise is foreseen in the com-ing ecaes (IPCC, 2007). On this point, two things shoul be taken intoaccount: (i) the energy sector is by far the most responsible for greenhousegas emissions (Olivier et al., 1999); (ii) energy eman is projecte togrow by 55% between 2005 an 2030, at an average annual rate of 1.8%(IEA, 2007). It appears, therefore, that tackling climate change with re-

placing traitional energy sources is an imperative task, as also testie bythe general international agreement on emission reuction (aka Kyoto Pro-tocol). More to that, uring the G8 Japan summit in 2008 the worl leaersenorse halving global greenhouse gases emissions by 2050.

deicate crops are seen as one of the most interesting short-term op-tion to replace fossil fuels. Millions of hectares of energy crops are expecteto be cultivate aroun the worl in the next ecaes. Nonetheless, ivert-

ing agricultural lans to energy crops is a current subject of heate iscus-sion, mainly because of two reasons. The rst one is the never-ening i-lemma of the possible threats to foo security. despite stuies arguing thata relevant surface coul be mae available for energy crops in 2050 withoutsignicant consequences on foo prices (Smeets et al., 2007, an referencestherein), the worl foo eman combine with increase lan competitionis still a subject of serious concern for many governments (FAO, 2008).

Lorenzo Barbanti and Simone Fazio, University of Bologna, ItalyAnna Grev, Fraunhofer UMSICHT, Germany


20/265

20 Handbook on Biofuels and Family Agriculture in Developing Countries

The secon reason is more intrinsic to these crops: espite the fact thatliterature is rich in energy crops, some aspects such as their environmentalimpacts, the economic sustainability an the site-specic aaptability are

still ebate, requiring eeper insights an better unerstaning.In moern society, energy an especially the iniviual mobility is an

important factor of economic an private life. About 90% of the commer-cially prouce energy is from fossil resources such as oil, coal an gas.Facing winling oil reserves, rising oil prices an the fact that most of theenergy supply in the worl comes from geo-politically volatile economies,

biofuels ege closer to the spotlight. In orer to enhance energy security,many countries, incluing the USA, have been emphasizing prouctionan use of renewable energy sources such as biofuels, which is an emerg-

ing inustry in the current economic context on a global scale (IEA, 2007).Toay, energy from biomass represents 10-12% of total worl energyconsumption, primarily in eveloping countries for omestic heating ancooking. Biofuels still cover less than 1% of total fuel requirement. Brazilan USA are the worl-leaing proucers an consumers of bioethanol,representing more than 85% of the total worl market, while the EU is themain market an proucer for bioiesel (75% of the worl consumption)(IEA, 2007).

In the worl, ifferent strategic targets are riving political choices ofthe major biofuel proucers/consumers. For instance, in fast evelopingcountries such as China an Inia, the rst objective is to increase the pri-mary energy supply reucing or slightly increasing the import, while themajor goal for USA an EU is the internal market protection with respectto both energy supply an possible benets for agriculture. Other countriessuch as Brazil, Malaysia, an Inonesia conceive biofuels as an exportgoo. The environmental benets, which were scarcely consiere untilthe last few years except by the EU an some other countries, are nowgaining importance in the worl community.

Though international trae in biofuels is still at an early stage, USA

imports from Brazil grew signicantly since 2004. Brazil heavily investein ethanol prouction uring the energy crisis of the 1970s an now hasone of the worls most avance prouction an istribution systems. AsVales (2007) reports, Brazil aims at replacing 10% of gasoline consumeworlwie by 2012, which means that the country woul have to export20% of its current prouction. It is interesting to note the potential for traein biofuels among the major proucing countries. The EU is also targetinga 10% share of biofuels in the transport sector by 2020.

Global biofuel use is expecte to increase twofol by 2015 an Brazil will

remain the worls top exporter; the U.S. is expecte to perform the largestincrease in biofuel use per country, raising its current consumption by more


21/265

Introduction 21

than 30%, accoring to ata from the Global Biofuels Outlook: 2009-2015report (Hart Consulting, 2008). In Europe, France an Germany alreay areestablishe proucers. The report preicts other countries to signicantly

begin to contribute to the worls biofuel prouction by 2015: Argentina,China, Colombia, Inonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, an Thailan.

1.1 Biofuels

The term biofuel covers a wie range of fuels erive from organicbiomass incluing soli biomass, liqui fuels an various biogases. Biofu-els are gaining increase public an scientic attention, raise by factors

such as oil price, the increase eman for energy security, an concernover greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels. The existing mobilityconcepts as well as the infrastructure for istribution an transport are

base on liqui fuels. due to their high energy ensity they are one ofthe best storage meia for energy. The most important liqui biofuels are

bioethanol an bioiesel (FAME - Fatty Aci Methyl Ester) which are pro-uce an as well as use worl wie in reasonable amounts. Bioethanolfrom sugar or starch an bioiesel from vegetable oils or animal fats areconsiere to be 1st generation biofuels. Representatives of the followinggenerations as for example hyrogenate vegetable oils (HVO), syntheticfuels (BtL - Biomass to Liqui) an bioethanol an bioiesel from 2n gen-eration feestocks such as cellulose or hemi-cellulose an Jatropha or al-gae are assume to be superior to 1st generation biofuels. High investmentcosts, technical problems as well as high en consumer costs cast it intooubt whether these fuels will be available in the foreseeable future.

1.1.1 Bioethanol

Bioethanol is currently prouce from sugar- or starch-containingfeestocks such as wheat, maize, sugar beets, sugar cane or molasses, bymeans of enzymatic igestion, fermentation of the sugars, istillation anrying. Using avance pulping technologies, cellulose-base biomass(e.g., woo), coul be a future feestock for ethanol prouction.

due to the risk of engine-corrosion water-free (absolute) alcohol isrequire for fuel applications. Unfortunately, ethanol an water form anazeotropic mixture which makes the ehyration of ethanol a highly en-ergy emaning process.

Pure ethanol is use as gasoline substitute, whereas the ethanol eriva-tive ethyl-tert-butyl-ether (ETBE) is use as octane- an emission-improver.


22/265


Bioethanol is wiely use in the USA an in Brazil. For the prouction ofbioethanol, the USA, China, France, Germany, Russia, an Canaa mainlyuse sugar beet, maize an other cereals, whereas Brazil an Inia use sugar-

cane, which is a more energy efcient crop, as a whole (IEA, 2007).Focusing on agronomic issues, maize seems to be less favourable for

bioethanol or biofuels in general, because it requires high cropping inputs(fertilizers, pesticies an water), in contrast with one of the basic princi-

ples of biofuels: the environmental sustainability.

1.1.2 Biodiesel

Bioiesel is prouce by the transesterication of vegetable oils, animalfats or use frying oils (UFO). during this catalytic reaction the high viscos-ity of plant oils is reuce by converting the oils with a monovalent alcohol(mostly methanol) to the respective alkyl ester an glycerol. depeningon the starting material these esters are calle oilsee rape oil methyl ester(RME), soybean oil methyl ester (SME) or palm oil methyl ester (PME).It is also possible to use ethanol instea of methanol to prouce fatty aciethyl esters (FAEE), but this technology is far more complex an thereforenot as wiely sprea. Bioiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe ancan be use as a full iesel substitute (B100) or as blening component tofossil iesel (BX). due to its fatty aci composition an availability, oilseerape oil is the most suitable feestock for bioiesel prouction in Europe,whereas the US-market is mainly base on soybean oil. In south-east Asiaan because of high prouction volumes an low prices compare to oilseerape an soybean oil, the importance of palm oil as energy crop increases.

The agronomic an environmental aspects of oil crops will be a-resse in the following chapters. Anyway, it may be note that oil cropsare generally less impacting than ethanol crops per unit of croppe surface,whereas they are more impacting per unit energy prouce. In both cases,

the exploitation of co-proucts is inispensable to increase the economican environmental sustainability of any crop.

1.1.3 Biofuels - state of the art

Besie bioiesel an bioethanol, there are several other biofuels (seechap. 1.1) uner evelopment, but only few of them passe the step ofmarket launch an their availability is still limite. The most avance

technologies so far are the prouction of BtL-fuels by Fischer-Tropschsynthesis an HVO by hyrotreating of vegetable oils.


23/265

Introduction 23

Biomass-to-Liquid (BtL)

While for bioiesel an bioethanol prouction only parts of a plant, i.e.oil, sugar, starch or cellulose are use so far, BtL prouction claims to usethe whole plant. Suitable feestocks are e.g. lignocellulose-base biomassas switchgrass (Panicum virgatum),Miscanthus or biomass sorghum butalso resiual material from bioiesel or bioethanol prouction.

The BtL-process consists of two main steps (g. 1.1): gasication an

catalytic synthesis. The biomass is gasie by pyrolysis to chemically e-compose the organic material an prouce a mixture of carbon monoxiean hyrogen (syngas). In the following step, syngas is polimerise intoiesel-range liqui hyrocarbons by Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (Keron-cuff, 2008; FNR, 2007).

The main rawback of this process is the high energy eman for ry-ing moist biomass, an the gasication step. So far, BtL-fuels are not avail-able on the market.

Hydrotreated vegetable oils (HVO)

Vegetable oils which are transforme to hyrocarbons by a catalytic re-action with hyrogen are referre to as hyrotreate vegetable oils (HVO).during hyrotreating (g. 1.2), all alkenes an hyroxyl groups are ecar-

boxylate an hyrogenate; the fatty aci chains of the triglyceries areconverte into the corresponing alkane, while the glycerol backbone into

propane (no glycerol sie-stream as in bioiesel prouction). decarbox-ylation shortens the hyrocarbon chains an hyrogenation ensures ochain length n-alkenes. Hence, HVO is not an oxygenate fuel as conven-tional bioiesel, but chemically ientical to fossil iesel. N-alkanes show

high cetane numbers (see chap. 9), which makes them interesting as fuel aswell as combustion improvers.

Figure 1.1 - Process owsheet for the Choren Carbo-V Process to produce BtL-fuels(Choren, 2011).


24/265


However, its comparatively high melting point is isavantageous forlow-temperature applications. To overcome this problem, a subsequentisomerisation can be one. HVO can either be prouce by co-processingin hyrotreating (HT) units of reneries, or in stan-alone units with a-

itional isomerisation (Reaney, 2005).Hyrogenation technology is very sensitive to feestock impuritiessuch as phosphorus or alkaline earth metals; therefore only rene oils can

be use. The most avance stan-alone technology is provie by Neste-Oil, Finlan, which mostly processes rene palm oil (Oja, 2008).

Figure 1.2 - Schematic owsheet of an HVO-process.

Figure 1.3 - NExBTL plant (left), NExBTL sample(right) HVO-process (Rouhiainen, 2007).


25/265

Introduction 25

An example for a HVO prouction by co-processing is the H-BIOprocess of Petrobras, Brazil. In the H-BIO process (g. 1.4), vegetable oil

is blene to mineral iesel fractions after the FCC (ui catalytic cracker)in a conventional reng process an is hyroconverte in hyrotreatingunits (HdT), which are mainly use for the reuction of sulphur in fossiliesel an quality improvement in petroleum reneries.

From 100 litre of soybean oil, 96 litre of iesel fuel an 2.2 nm 3 ofpropane are prouce by ecarboxylation or hyroeoxygenation in the H-BIO process. due to the hyrogenation of C=C ouble-bons uring HT,the relative ratio of saturate to unsaturate components rises in the H-BIOvs. the FAME technology, while N an especially S ecrease (Petrobras,

2010).

Figure 1.4 - H-BIO process and rst produced sample (Petro-bras, 2010).


26/265


27/265

2 General Characterisation

and Applications of Plant Oilsand Biodiesel

Vegetable oils or their erive prouct, bioiesel, are potential fuels foriesel engines, representing an alternative to fossil fuel. The suitability ofthe various oils an the respective bioiesels to be use in iesel enginesepens on oil characteristics which eserve a specic iscussion.

2.1 Plant Oils

More than 200 plant species are grown for oil prouction worlwie(www.hort.purue.eu, 2009; FAO, 1992); several crops are either usefor the extraction of essential oils (aromatic an meicinal uses), or forthe prouction of technical oils (e.g., lubricants). The remaining cropsare use for eible oil/fat an, more recently, for bioiesel prouction.Also the short chain use of pure plant oil (PPO) for power generationin small steay-state engines or in agricultural tractors seems to be a

promising option, especially in rural areas far from transestericationan electricity plants.

The most promising crops, suitable for short chain fuel oil or bioie-sel prouction are represente by see/fruit crops, both herbaceous (annu-

al) an tree (perennial) crops. Among herbaceous crops, the most suitableones concerning both yiel an oil characteristics are sunower, oilseerape an soybean (in this species oil represents a co-prouct with respectto protein cake). Among tree crops the most cultivate one for energy pur-

poses is the oil palm, which is also the top yieling. Jatropha is anotherpromising crop, especially for warm, relatively ry regions of the worl.Other palm trees, such as the coconut or minor species (e.g., macaba (Ac-rocomia aculeata)), are grown for oil prouction in several regions in the

Anna Grev, Fraunhofer UMSICHT, GermanyLorenzo Barbanti and Simone Fazio, University of Bologna, Italy


28/265


worl. The interest in the exploitation of native species, potentially bettert to local conitions, is rising in several countries.

Several oil crops can be grown in a given area. A rst ecisive factor is

the choice among annual an perennial crops: the former can be introucein a traitional crop rotation with foo species; the latter can avoi annualtillage but stiffen farm rotation.

Another key issue for energy crops are the physical an chemical prop-erties of the pure plant oil, epening on the intene use. In table 2.1, oilyiel potential an fuel characteristics of oils from ifferent herbaceousan tree oil crops are liste. It appears as the oil output per unit surfacegreatly varies among crops. However, it shoul be consiere that suchata come from ifferent cropping areas; that oil sometimes is a co-prouct

(e.g. soybean); at last, that the cost per litre of oil prouce varies accor-ing to many factors, besie oil yiel per ha.

Table 2.1 - Oil yield potential per hectare, and characteristics of oils for biofuels purposes (Knothe et

al., 1997).

Oil crop Oil yieldL/ha

Avg.Melting pt C

Iodinevalue g/100 g

Caloricvalue MJ/kg

Cetanenumber

Oil palm 5950 9 51 37.6 42

Coconut palm 2689 22 9 40.5 Jatropha 1892 5 102 37.5 23

Sunower 952 7.2 130 39.6 37

Castorbean 1413 13 85 39.5

Soybean 446 4 132 39.6 38

Oilseed rape 1190 4 112 39.7 38

Cotton seed 325 2 107 39.5 42

Apart from the general requirements for renewable iesel substitutes (see

also chap. 2.2), there are also climate-relate parameters to be consiere, asfor example the melting point. The melting point inicates the temperature atwhich a soli material forms the rst liqui roplets; this is especially impor-tant for processing or application of plant oils as biofuels. directly relate tothe melting point is the ioine value (IV), which is a measure for the amountof carbon ouble bons present in the respective oil or fat, inicating the e-gree of saturation. The IV is a titration metho an ene as the amount ofioine in g consume by 100 g of a triglycerie sample - the higher the ioinevalue the higher the egree of unsaturation. In general, mono- or polyunsatu-

rate fatty acis have a lower melting point than the corresponing saturatefatty aci (e.g. oleic aci C18:1c 13 C an stearic aci C18:0 69.6 C). due


29/265

General Characterisation and Applications of Plant Oils and Biodiesel 29

to the relatively low ioine values resulting in high melting points of coconutan palm oil, these feestocks are not favourable for the use as short chainfuels in temperate to col regions, but might be well suite in tropical regions.

Another important parameter which is crucial for the application ofpure plant oil in engines is the kinematic viscosity. The kinematic viscos-ity of a ui is a measure of its resistance to shear or tensile stress anthe reciprocal value of the uiity. In engines, high fuel viscosities mightresult in poor atomisation of the fuel, often causing eposits an coking inthe injectors, combustion chamber an valves. For iesel fuels, viscosities

between 2.5 an 4.0 mm2/s (at 40 C) are require; all liste pure plantoils show viscosities far above the maximum limit. These high viscositiesare one of the main reasons for the conversion of vegetable oils into the

respective fatty aci methyl esters.The heating value or caloric value of a substance, usually a fuel orfoo (see foo energy), is the amount of heat release uring the combus-tion of a specie amount of it. The caloric value is a characteristic foreach substance an is measure in units of energy per unit mass (kJ/kg).The caloric value of plant oils is lower than that of fossil-base ieselfuels (42-46 MJ/kg) as plant oils as well as bioiesel are oxygenate fuels(oxygen is boun in the fuels molecule).

The cetane number (CN) escribes the combustion quality of a ieselfuel. It is a measure of the ignitability or more exactly the ignition elaycorresponing to the time perio between start of injection an start ofcombustion. Cetane ignites easily uner compression; therefore it is as-signe a CN of 100 whereas all other hyrocarbons are inexe in com-

parison to cetane. Fuels with high CN have a better ignitability than thosewith low CN. Accoring to the European iesel fuel stanar EN 590, aminimum cetane number of 51 is require for iesel engine applications.

Technical Applications of Plant Oils

Plant fats an oils are preominantly use in foo or fee applications.

Besie that, fats an oils are use as fuel (see above) an as renewable fee-stock for the prouction of cosmetics, lubricants or other biofuels. It can also

be use for small-scale energy generation or as feestock for soap prouction.

2.2 Biodiesel

Fossil iesel fuel is a complex mixture of hyrocarbons with 9 to 20carbon atoms (see example g. 2.1) an a ene boiling range between

170C an 360C. The specic composition of iesel fuels epens on theprouction metho; in general, iesel fuel is obtaine from petroleum.


30/265


Bioiesel is a renewable fuel erive from vegetable oils which canbe ae at low ratio to most iesel fuels without substantially changing

the fuel properties, as it shows comparable qualities as the crue oil baseiesel fuel. due to very high viscosities an poor col ow properties, theuse of pure plant oil in iesel engines is only suitable to a limite extent.

The main reactants in the bioiesel prouction process are triglyceries(vegetable oils) an aliphatic alcohols with short chain lengths, e.g. metha-nol or ethanol. during the transesterication reaction (g. 2.2), triglycer-ies react with methanol to fatty aci methyl ester (FAME) an the triva-lent alcohol glycerol (g. 2.3). By this reaction, the properties of the plantoils are moie an especially the viscosity is reuce. In case of oilsee

rape oil the viscosity of the erive ester is about tenfol lower (table 2.2).In table 2.2 a comparison of physical properties of oilsee rape oil,oilsee rape methyl ester (RME) an fossil iesel fuel is shown.

Bioiesel is chemically ifferent from fossil iesel fuels, which leasto a number of special physical characteristics compare to the crue oil

base fuel. It shows a higher viscosity, ensity, initial an nal boilingpoint, col-lter plugging point, an ash point (see table 2.2 an chap.9). All these properties are relate to the high average molecular weight of

bioiesel compare to conventional iesel.The lower caloric value compare to fossil iesel results in increase

fuel consumption when using plant oil or bioiesel as iesel substitute.

Figure 2.1 - Hydrocarbon chain (undecane C11).

Figure 2.2 - Transesterication reaction.


31/265

General Characterisation and Applications of Plant Oils and Biodiesel 31

Pure plant oil an bioiesel show a signicant higher ash point than fos-sil base iesel which is avantageous for hanling the fuel especially inapplications requiring high safety stanars. The sulphur content of the

biofuels is far lower than of stanar iesel, which is another avantageas sulphur is suppose to have a negative effect on health an environ-ment.

Table 2.2 - Properties of different fuels (Bockisch, 1998; Mittelbach, 2004).

Property Fossil diesel Oilseed rape oil RME

Mean molecular weight (g/mol) 230 883 296

Caloric value (MJ/kg) 42-46 36.7-37.7 37.02-37.20

Density at 15 C (kg/m3) 835 910-920 860-900Kinematic viscosity at 40 C (mm2/s) 2.7 37 4.4

Flash point (C) 50-77 317-324 111-175

Sulphur content (%) ~0.14 0.009-0.012 0.002-0.006

Technical Applications of Biodiesel

Bioiesel is use preominantly for transportation purposes (in pureform or as blening component in conventional fossil iesel). Besie that,

it can be use as a heating fuel for omestic or commercial boilers as wellas for power generation (e.g. in co-generation power plants).

Figure 2.3 - Sample of biodiesel (upper phase) and glycerol (bottom phase).


32/265


33/265

Literature

Bockisch M., 1998. Fats and Oils Handbook, AOCS Press, United Statesof America.Choren, 2011: Der Carbo-V Prozess, http://www.choren.com/carbo-v/

technologie/ (last consulted: 08.06.2011).Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e. V. (FNR), 2007. Biokraftstoffe:

Panzen Rohstoffe Produkte.Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 1992. Minor oil crops. FAO ag-

ricultural services bulletin no. 94, Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations Rome.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2008. Bioenergy, food securityand sustainability towards an international framework. FAO ReportHLC/08/INF/3, p. 16.

Hart Consulting, Global energy outlook: 2009-2015, 2008. Hart energypublishing, Houston - USA.

Rouhiainen J., 2007: A new era in biodiesel, High Technology Finland,2007.

International Energy Agency (IEA), 2007. World energy outlook 2007. In:Executive Summary. IEA, Paris, France, p. 18.

IPCC, 2007. Climate change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Cam-

bridge University Press, Cambridge.Kerdoncuff P., 2008. Modellierung und Bewertung von Prozessketten zur

Herstellung von Biokraftstoffen der zweiten Generation. Universitts-verlag Karlsruhe.

Knothe G., Dunn R.O. and Bagby M.O., 1997. Biodiesel: The use of vegeta-ble oils and their derivatives as alternative diesel fuels. Fuels and chemi-cals from biomass. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society.

Kucharik C.J., Brye K.R., Norman J.M., Foley J.A., Gower S.T., BundyL.G., 2001. Measurements and modeling of carbon and nitrogen cy-

cling in agroecosystems of southern Wisconsin: potential for SOC se-questration during the next 50 years. Ecosystems 4, 237-258.


34/265


Mann M.E., Braley R.S., Hughes M.K., 1998. Global-scale temperaturepatterns an climate forcing over the past six centuries. Nature 392,779-787.

Mittelbach M. et al., 2004. Bioiesel - The Comprehensive Hanbook,Graz, sterreich.

Oja S., 2008. NExBTL - Next Generation Renewable diesel. Symposium,New Biofuels. Berlin, May 6-7, 2008.

Olivier J.G.J., Bouwman A.F., Berowski J.J.M., Velt C., Bloos J.P.J.,Visscheijk A.J.H., van er Maas C.W.M., Zanvel P.Y.J., 1999. Sec-toral emission inventories of greenhouse gases for 1990 on a per coun-try basis as well as on 1 1 gri. Environmental Science Policy 2,241-263.

Petrobras, 2010. http://www.petrobras.com.br/tecnologia/ing/hbio.asp (lastconsulte on 16.12.10).Ragauskas A.J., Williams C.K., davison B.H., Britovsek G., Cairney J.,

Eckert C.A., Freerick W.J. Jr, Hallett J.P., Leak d.J., Liotta C.L., Mie-lenz J.R., Murphy R., Templer R., Tschaplinski T., 2006. The path for-war for biofuels an biomaterials. Science 311, 484-489.

Smeets E., Faaij A., Lewanowski I., Turkenburg W., 2007. A bottom-up assessment an review of global bio-energy potentials to 2050.Progress in Energy an Combustion 1, 56-106.

Vales C. 2007. Ethanol deman driving the Expansion of Brazils SugarInustry. Sweet an Sweeteners Outlook 249.


35/265

PART IIOil Crops


36/265


37/265

3 Oil Crops

The choice of the oil crops in a project of agro-energy evelopment is acrucial part of the work. The choice is base on the species characteristics,as well as on plant interactions with the environment (soil an climate), onthe local preconitions at the site of cropping an on logistic aspects of the

prouction chain. The intrinsic characteristics of the oil crops which canpotentially be grown in a given area are the main factor for the choice ofthe best suite species for that area. Sometimes, a few species (2-3) may

be envisage as the best combination in an area, to level off reciprocalavantages an isavantages.

3.1 Oil Palm

The oil palms (Elaeis spp.) comprise two species of the Arecaceaefamily. They have been grown in commercial plantations for the prouc-tion of eible oil since a long time; more recently, they are being eicateto bioiesel prouction. The African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.)is native to Western Africa, while the American oil palm (Elaeis oleifera(Kunth) Corts) is native to tropical Central an South America (Lotschert

an Beese, 1999).The African oil palm features higher yiels per hectare, thus is the most

iffuse species at present both for foo an biofuel prouctions. It wasomesticate in its native range, probably in present Nigeria, an movethroughout tropical Africa by shifting agriculture at least 4,000-5,000 yearsago. The African oil palm was introuce to the Americas by European ex-

plorers an traers in the late 1500s, but the rst large-scale plantationswere establishe in Sumatra an Malaysia in the early 1900s (FAO, 2002).

Lorenzo Barbanti and Simone Fazio, University of Bologna, Italy


38/265


3.1.1 Botanical Description

Oil palms can reach a height of 20-25 m in natural environments, butrarely more than 8-10 m in cultivate els. Leaf bases are normally ligni-e an are visible for many years in the stem after leaf fall. Leaves are up

to 6 m long, with 200-300 leaets, each of them about 0.8-1 m long an3-5 cm wie, with entire margins. Leaets are istribute in 2/3 of the leaf,while the remaining part is covere by thorns.

The root system has the shape of a rhizome that grows horizontallyfrom the stem to a 4-5 m length (20-30 cm eep); some seconary rootsoriginate from the primary roots, growing to a epth of 1.5-2 m.

Oil palms are monoecious, proucing separate male an female ino-rescences in leaf axils of the same plant. In both sexes, the inorescence isa compoun spaix with 100-200 branches. Each ower presents 3 petalsan 3 sepals, whose colour varies from yellow to orange.

Fruits are rupes, typical of a lot of species in the Arecaceae family.The mesocarp an enocarp thickness is variable, with ura phenotypeshaving thick enocarps an thin mesocarp, an tenera types the opposite.The exocarp (shell) color is green uring fruit growth, shifting to orangeor brown at maturity (in virescens an nigrescens types, respectively).Fruit length ranges from 2-5 cm; fruits have an ovoi shape. The mesocarp(pulp or meat) is brous an fatty, an the see is white, encase in a

brown enocarp; palm oil erives from the mesocarp while palm kernel oilfrom the see. The female infructescence contains 200-300 fruits attaining

maturity about 3-5 months after pollination; each infructescence can weighup to 40 kg (duke, 1983).

Figure 3.1 - Oil palm plantation.


39/265

Oil Crops 39

Figure 3.2 - Oil palm anatomy.


40/265


3.1.2 Crop Cycle

The palm oil cycle starts with a long establishment phase, without any

fruit yiel for a few years (3-5): even in the case of transplante plants,the young palms prouce only male owers for several months, then onlyfemale owers for another long perio. The time require to reach ma-turity, when plants start to prouce both female an male owers, variesepening on climate an soil conitions, as well as on crop variety. Inorer to avoi an interruption in oil prouction for a few years, especiallyin small scale plantations, the new palm plants are transplante in theinter-rows of oler palms when the these latter are still proucing. Aftera few years, the ol trees are eliminate through herbicie treatment or

irectly cut. As an alternative to this, when palms are plante in new elsthey are often intercroppe with annual foo crops in the rst unprouc-tive years.

Flowering normally occurs uring the perio of maximum rainfalls;fruits reach commercial maturity (i.e. the maximum oil content) after 80-120 ays from the en of owering. A moern palm plantation can yielmore than 20 t/ha of fruits, which means almost 5 t of palm oil, plus a-itional kernel oil (aroun 60% of palm oil yiel) (duke, 1983), althoughthis latter is not always recovere.

3.1.3 Cropping Technique

Propagation

Oil palms are see-propagate, as agamic multiplication (e.g., cutting)is not possible. In natural conitions the germination is extremely long aninhomogeneous (ranging from a few months to several years), so the com-mon use for moern nurseries is to carry out germination in greenhouseswith heate see bes. The entire fruits, harveste at physiological matu-

rity (i.e., about one month after commercial maturity), are place in soilboxes uner heating an continuous moistening. In these conitions thegermination is quicker an more homogeneous, being normally completewithin 3 months (FAO 2002; MdA 2007).

After germination, the plants are transplante into plastic contain-ers an maintaine in the greenhouse for another 4-5 months, until theemergence of the rst bifurcate leaf (the rst leaves are single appe).Then, the plants are transplante to an open-air nursery, where they willremain for another 16-18 months, until the prouction of 14-15 green

leaves. At this point the plants are reay for nal transplantation to theel (FAO, 2002).


41/265


42/265


3.2.1 Macaba or Macaw Palm (Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd.ex Mart.)

At a rst glance, macaba resembles the queen palm. However, uponcloser inspection there are several ifferences that istinguish them. The

macaw palm has a more robust look, enser canopy, an a trunk that isslightly swollen above the mi-point. However, the most obvious trait isthe presence of sharp black spines that encircle the trunk (g. 3.5). Spinesare most ense on younger plants; very ol palms have mostly smoothtrunks as spines wear away over time.

Like oil palm, macaba is comprise in the Arecaceae family. Theplant grows to a 15-20 m height; the trunk, up to 50 cm in iameter, is char-acterize by several slener, black, sharp 10 cm long spines. The leaves are

pinnate, 3-4 m long, with several slener, 50-100 cm long leaets. Petioles

are also covere with spines. The owers are small, prouce on a largebranche inorescence 1.5 m long. The fruit is a yellowish-green rupe

Figure 3.3 - Harvesting poles for oil palm.


43/265

Oil Crops 43

2.5-5 cm in iameter, containing a single, ark brown, nut-like see, which

is very tough to break (http://www.oriata.com/, 2009). The insie is ary white lling that has a vaguely sweet taste when eaten. Some weeks

Figure 3.4 - Macaba (Acrocomia aculeata).

Figure 3.5 - Black spines in macaba trunk.


44/265


after fruit harvest, the macaba pulp oil presents a high content of free fattyacis (over 35%), which is unfavourable for the bioiesel process.

Macaba is wiesprea throughout Central an Latin America, often

on poor soils. Its remarkable tolerance to rought makes it a suitable spe-cies for oil prouction in regions that are too ry for the African oil palman coconut palm; the fruit yiel can excee 6 t/ha (Waneck an Justo,1982).

This palm can also grow in poor, salty, sany or rocky soils, althoughthe best growth takes place in fertile, well-raine soils. It requires full sunoutoors, as well as well lit greenhouses for nursery. The macaw palm hasan avantage over the queen palm in that it can more easily tolerate ry soils.

Sees germinate in 4-6 months an shoul be scarie to improve

germination. Wet-warm conitions with temperatures above 24C are re-quire.The crop technique is similar to that of oil palm, but macaba is not

yet iffuse because of ifculties in overcoming see ormancy an slowearly growth. Rapi hyrolysis of the mesocarp oil an ifculty in sep-arating oil from the brous an mucilaginous pulp are among the other

problems that still have to be overcome (FAO, 1986; Arkcoll, 1988). Theresiue from the extraction, the macaba-pie can be use as organic fer-tilizer or as fee for cattle, goats an sheep.

In the short term, it may be envisage that the fruits of native, sparselygrowing macaba trees will be exploite to prouce bioiesel. To avoithe rapi epletion of this energy source, practices for a sustainable useare being evise: etaile inventory of the plants available in a givenarea; plans for conservation an use of the available genetic resources;zoning of the allowe activities; setting of stanars for lan use; etc.There are also researches on prouction systems, where the macaba will

be grown in regular plantations at xe istances. An avantage of plan-tations is that foo crops (beans, corn) can be inter-croppe uring thestarting phase of macaba. In four years the plants reach a height of 7-10

meters an are normally proucing fruits; from that time onwars, grassmay be plante between the rows as cattle forage (http://www.embrapa.com, 2010).

Macaba shoul not be use as the sole raw material for feeing abioiesel plant, since fruit harvest lasts for only four months. For the bi-oiesel plant to operate throughout the year, other sources will be neee,namely oilsees such as soybean, sunower, cotton, etc.

Macaba is best use as a bounary tree on large properties. Smallgroves are particularly attractive. It can also be use as a street tree an

in urban plantings, where its slow growth an rought resistance woulrepresent an avantage with respect to other palm trees.


45/265

Oil Crops 45

In its native regionsAcrocomia aculeata is an extremely useful plant.The starchy pith, which makes up the inner core of the trunk, is use forcattle foo in the ry season. The starch is extracte an is often ferment-

e into an alcoholic rink. The brous leaves are use to make rope antwine. As an alternative to oil extraction, fruits may also be boile, to beconsume as foo.

3.2.2 Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.)

The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) is an important member of thefamilyArecaceae (palm family). It is the only known species in the genus

Cocos (http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/, 2010), an is a large palm, growing upto 30 m high, with pinnate leaves 4-6 m long, an single leaets 60-90cm long; ol leaves break away cleanly, leaving a smooth trunk. The termcoconut may refer to the whole coconut palm, the see, or the fruit, whichis not a botanical nut (duke, 1983).

The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for ecoration, aswell as for foo an inustrial uses; virtually every part of the coconut

palm can be exploite in some way.

Figure 3.6 - Coconut palm plantation.


46/265


The owers of the coconut palm are polygamo-monoecious, with bothmale an female owers in the same inorescence. Flowering continu-ously occurs. Coconut palms are believe to be largely cross-pollinate,

although some warf varieties are self-pollinating. The pulp (meat) of thecoconut is the eible enosperm, locate on the inner surface of the shell.Insie the enosperm layer, coconuts contain an eible clear liqui that issweet, salty, or both.

Coconut oil can be extracte from both kernel an pulp of mature nutsharveste from this palm. Throughout the tropical region it has proviethe primary source of fat in the iets of millions of people for generations.It has various applications in foo, meicine, inustry, an more recentlyfor biofuel prouction. Coconut oil is very temperature-stable, therefore it

makes an excellent cooking an frying oil. It has a smoke point of about180C. Because of its stability, it is slow to oxiize an thus resistant toranciity, lasting up to two years ue to a high saturate fat content (highIV) (Fife, 2005).

Coconut trees are very har to establish in ry climates, an cannotgrow there without frequent irrigation; in ry conitions, the new leaveso not unfol well, while oler leaves may wither; fruits also ten to beshe.

Plants are normally propagate by transplant of seelings originat-ing from fully mature fruits. Sees are selecte from high-yieling stockwith esirable traits. After fully mature nuts are picke, instea of beingallowe to fall, they are shake-teste to listen for water within: uner-ripe, spoile, excessively ry an insect- or isease-amage nuts areiscare. Nuts are plante right away in nursery or store in a cool,ry, ventilate she until they can be plante. Sees plante in nurseryfacilitate visual selection of the best specimens for el transplant, asonly half will prouce a high-yieling palm. Also, watering an insectcontrol is much easier to manage in a nursery. Soil shoul be sany orsany-loamy, evoi of waterlogging, but close to a source of water,

an in full light. Nuts plante horizontally prouce better seelings thanthose plante vertically. The germinating eye is place uppermost in ashallow furrow (about 15 cm eep), an soil is moune up aroun, butleaving the eye expose. All late germinating an slow growing ini-viuals are iscare. Robust plants, showing normal to rapi growth,straight stems, broa, comparatively short ark-green leaves with promi-nent veins, spreaing outwar an not straight upwar, an those freeof isease symptoms, are selecte for the transplant. The best spacingepens upon soil fertility: usually 9-10 m on the square is use, planting

70-150 trees/ha (duke, 1983).


47/265

Oil Crops 47

Planting holes 1 m wie, quite eep shoul be ug 1-3 months beforeseelings are transplante. Usually 7-8 month-ol seelings are use astransplants. In some cases, plants up to 5 years ol are use, as they are

more resistant to termite amage. If oler plants are use, care must betaken not to amage roots, as they are slow to recover. To ease establish-ment, it is esirable to carry out the transplant in the rainy season. In areaswith only one rainy season per year, it is simpler to plant nuts in nurseryin one rainy season, an to transplant them a year later (duke, 1983).

Normally, the cheapest fertilizers available in a given area are use.A general recommenation, with suitable local moications, consists of250-300 g N, 250-450 g P2O5, an 300-650 g K2O per palm (duke, 1983).

The coconut palm is amage by the larvae of manyLepidoptera spe-

cies (butteries an moths), which fee on it, incluing someBatrachedraspecies:B. arenosella;B. atriloqua anB. mathesoni (which exclusivelyfees on Cocos nucifera), anB. nuciferae.

The fruit may also be amage by eriophyi coconut mites (Eriophyesguerreronis). This mite infests coconut plantations, an may be evastat-ing: it can estroy up to 90% of the coconut prouction. The immaturenuts are infeste an felle by larvae welling in the portion covere bythe perianth of the immature nuts; if they survive, they are eforme.Spraying with wettable sulphur 0.4% or with neem-base pesticies cangive some relief, but it is cumbersome an labour intensive (Agriculturehanbook, 1960).

Trees begin to prouce fruits within 5-6 years on goo soils, morelikely within 7-9 years, an reach full bearing ability in 12-13 years. Thetime neee from female owering to fruit maturity is approximately 12months, two thirs of which from fruit setting to maturity.

Coconuts are usually picke by climbers, or cut by knives attache toen of long bamboo poles, which is cheaper an also more efcient. Insome areas nuts are allowe to fall naturally, an collecte regularly. Gooesiccate coconut shoul be white in colour, crisp, with a fresh nutty a-

vour, an shoul contain less than 20% moisture an about 70% oil. Thefree fatty aci content of extracte oil is below 0.1% (http://sistemasepro-ucao.cnptia.embrapa.br/, 2010).

The average yiel of coconuts is 3-5 tons per ha. Uner goo climaticconitions, a fully prouctive palm prouces 12-16 bunches of coconuts

per year, each bunch with 8-10 nuts, or 60-100 nuts/tree. Efcient pressingof 100 kg of esiccate fruit will approximately yiel 62.5 kg of coconutoil an 35 kg coconut cake containing about 7-10% oil. Oil yiels of 900-1,350 kg/ha have been reporte in several stuies (Prye an doty, 1976;

Telek an Martin, 1981).


48/265


3.3 Jatropha

Jatropha curcas L. is a species of theEuphorbiaceae family, which is

native to the American tropics, most likely Mexico an Central America.It is grown in tropical an subtropical regions aroun the worl, becom-ing naturalize in some areas, particularly in South-eastern Asia. Commonnames inclue Barbaos nut, purging nut, physic nut, or JCL (abbrevia-tion ofJatropha curcas Linnaeus) (FAO ecocrop: http://ecocrop.fao.org/,2009).


Jatropha is a semi-evergreen shrub or small tree, reaching a maximumheight of 6 m. It is tolerant to a high egree of ariity; therefore it can

be grown even close to the esert, although it nees an aequate wateravailability to achieve an economic yiel. The plant is poisonous, since itcontains curcin, a toxin from the same family (toxalbumins) that can befoun in castor bean. The sees contain 27-40% of non-eible oil, that can

be extracte to be irectly use or further processe as bioiesel feestock.So far this crop has mainly been plante to form living fences in orer to

protect traitional crops from wil animals (FAO ecocrop: http://ecocrop.fao.org/ 2009; duke, 1983).

Figure 3.7- Jatropha plantation.


49/265

Oil Crops 49

Jatropha is a perennial, monoecious plant with glabrous, ascening,stout branches. In the see-reprouce plant the root system is forme by5 principal roots; in the agamic-propagate plant the central root is not

present. The root system can grow up to a 3 m epth.Leaves are alternate, palmate, petiolate, an stipulate; petiole length

ranges from 2-20 cm; leaf blaes have 3-5 lobes, 12-18 x 11-16 cm; lobesare acute or shortly acuminate at the apex, with entire or unulating mar-gins (FAO ecocrop: http://ecocrop.fao.org/ 2010).

The inorescence is forme at the en of branches; it is a complexcyme, possessing one main inorescence an co-orescences with para-claia. The plant is monoecious an owers are unisexual, occasionallyhermaphroitic. The male ower consists of 10 stamens arrange in twoistinct whorls of ve each in a single column in the anroecium, in close

proximity to each other. The female ower has sepals up to 18 mm long,

persistent 3-locular, ellipsoi ovary, 1.5-2 mm in iameter, bi style (FAOecocrop: http://ecocrop.fao.org/ 2010).

Figure 3.8 - Branch, leaf and fruits ofJatropha curcas.


50/265


The fruit is an ellipsoi capsule 2.5-3 cm long, 2-3 cm in iameter, ofyellow colour turning black at maturity. Sees are black, 2-4 per fruit, el-lipsoi to triangular-convex, 1.5-2 x 1-1.1 cm in size. A commercial plan-

tation can yiel up to 4-5 ton of sees per ha, with an average oil content of35%; specic researches have shown that uner irrigation or high rainfallsthe annual see yiel can attain a peak of 12 tons per ha (FAO ecocrop:http://ecocrop.fao.org/ 2010).

3.3.2 Crop Cycle

Jatropha curcas is usually propagate by see, although the vegeta-

tive propagation is also possible. Multiplication through see (sexualreprouction) leas to a lot of genetic variation in terms of growth, bio-mass, see yiel an oil content. However, clonal techniques can helpto overcome these problems which now hiner a mass propagation ofthis oil crop. Vegetative propagation has been achieve by stem cut-tings, grafting, an buing as well as by air layering. Accoring tospecic trials, cuttings shoul preferably be taken from juvenile plantsan treate with 200 g/l of IBA (inole-3-butyric aci, a rooting hor-mone), to ensure a goo level of rooting in stem cuttings. These veg-etative methos have potential for commercial propagation of Jatropha(duke, 1983).

The transplanting shoul be carrie out in the perio of maximumrainfalls uring the year; 3 months later, the rst owering occurs; in thesubsequent years, 1 or 2 owerings occur per year, epening on climateconitions. Flowering, as well as fruit maturation, is scalar an can lastover one month. After 3-4 months fruits are visible an in 60-80 aysthey will reach commercial maturity (http://www.agroils.com, 2010).

data on potential crop lifespan uner intensive cropping system (i.e.with fruit harvesting) are not available so far, but the uration of el-

bounary plants, without specic fertilization an irrigation, was shownto excee 15 years (http://www.jatrophacurcasplantations.com, 2010).


Propagation and Establishment

Even if Jatropha can irectly be sown in the el, the best results aregenerally achieve by transplanting young plants raise in nurseries (g.

3.9). In case of vegetative propagation, plant cuttings shoul be rooting ingreenhouses or in some other protecte environment.


51/265

Oil Crops 51

The soil tillage shoul be accurate an eep: holes up to 50-80 cm eepare require. The optimal ensity seems to be aroun 2,000 plants per hec-

tare, plante with square patterns about 2-2.5 m apart (Alfonso-Brtoli,2008).

Productive Years

Two to three years after transplanting, Jatropha reaches the top fruityiel. Fertilizers may be save in some cases, but a recent stuy by Jong-schaap et al. (2007) showe that the nutrient uptake per ton of see issignicant, although very variable: 15-35 kg N, 1-7 kg P2O5 an 15-30 kgK2O. Therefore, a yiel of 4-5 tons per ha requires up to 140, 18 an 120kg/ha of N, P2O5 an K2O, respectively (FACT, 2010).

The plants nee to prouce sie shoots for maximum sprouting anmaximum ower an see output. Pruning is consiere an important

practice in cultivation of Jatropha, both at the beginning to shape theplant (topping of main stem an lateral shoots) an subsequently, to re-new the young prouctive branches carrying ower bus. The optimalshape is that of a plant with 8 12 branches bearing fruits. In orerto ease harvest, it is suggeste to keep the tree less than 2 meter high(FACT, 2010).

Pests an fungal attacks are extremely variable epening on climate

conitions an growing areas; normally the amage is not so serious as tojustify a pesticie treatment. Only in a few cases relevant amages have

Figure 3.9 - Nursery ofJatropha curcas.


52/265


been observe to be cause by two insects (Scutellera nobilis anPempe-lia morosalis), although recent reports from Mozambique (Luisa Santos,2010) claim that many other insect species seriously attack Jatropha, re-

quiring insecticie sprayings (FACT, 2010).Wee control is very important, therefore mechanical or chemical

weeing shoul be carrie out up to 4 times per year, in orer to avoi thecompetition of wees, especially for water (FACT, 2010).

Harvest

Manual harvesting is still the most iffuse technique so far, eventhough the labour cost for this operation is one of the most impacting inthe economic balance of this crop.

Harvest machines for almon an vineyars have been teste with gooresults also in Jatropha plantations, although mechanical harvest tens toepress the oil output, as fruit ripening is scalar an with manual harvestonly mature fruits will be picke up (FACT, 2010).

3.4 Castorbean

Castorbean,Ricinus communis L., also known as castor oil plant, isa species of the spurge family,Euphorbiaceae, such asJatropha curcas.

Figure 3.10 - Castorbean plantation.


53/265

Oil Crops 53

It belongs to a monotypic genus, Ricinus, an subtribe,Ricininae. Theevolution of castorbean an its relation to other species is currently be-ing stuie (Maroy, 2007). Its fruit (castor bean), espite its name, is

not a true bean. The species is inigenous to the South-eastern Meiter-ranean Basin, Eastern Africa, an Inia, but is wiesprea throughouttropical regions (an wiely grown elsewhere as an ornamental plant)(Maroy, 2007).


Castorbean is the source of castor oil, which has a wie variety of uses.

The sees contain between 40% an 60% of oil which is rich in unsatu-rate fatty acis (mainly ricinoleic aci) an ricin, a toxin which is alsopresent in lower concentrations throughout the plant.

Although monotypic, castorbean may greatly vary in growth habit anappearance. The variability has been aggravate by breeers who have se-lecte a range of cultivars for leaf an ower colours, as well as for oil pro-uction. The plant consists of several stems or branches, each terminate

by a spike. It is a fast-growing, suckering perennial shrub which can reachthe size of a small tree (2-5 m high) (FAO ecocrop: http://ecocrop.fao.org/,2009).

The glossy leaves are 15-45 cm long; they are long-stalke, alternatean palmate (5-12 eep lobes with coarsely toothe segments). In somevarieties they start off ark re, purple or bronze when young, grauallyshifting to a ark green, sometimes with a reish tinge, as they mature.The leaves of some varieties are green practically from the start, whereasin some others a pigment masks the green colour of all the chlorophyll-

bearing parts, leaves, stems an young fruit, so that they remain a re-markable purple-to-reish-brown throughout plant life. Specimens withark leaves can be foun growing next to those with green leaves; it

is speculate that there is only a single gene controlling the prouctionof the pigment in some varieties (FAO ecocrop: http://ecocrop.fao.org/,2009).

Flowers are borne in terminal panicle-like inorescences (spikes) ofgreen or reish monoecious owers without petals. The mature spike is15-30 cm long. The male owers are yellow-green with prominent sta-mens an are carrie in ovoi spikes up to 15 cm long; the female ow-ers have prominent re stigmas (FAO ecocrop: http://ecocrop.fao.org/,2009).

In some varieties, female owers are on the upper part of the spikean male owers on the lower part. Other varieties have male an female


54/265


owers intersperse on the spike. Varieties with spikes of only femaleowers enable the prouction of hybri see. Male owers rop off thespike after pollination. The lower spikes on the plant mature rst, fol-lowe by the upper spikes. The fruit is a green (to purple-reish) cap-sule containing large, oval, bean-like, highly poisonous sees with vari-able brownish mottling (g. 3.15) (FAO ecocrop: http://ecocrop.fao.org/,

2009).

Figure 3.11 - Anatomy ofRicinus communis.


55/265

Oil Crops 55

3.4.2 Crop Cycle

In the tropics, castorbean is perennial, whereas it cannot survive wintertemperatures in temperate regions, where it is grown as an annual crop,requiring a growing season of 140 to 180 ays. Germination is slow. See-lings will emerge 10 to 21 ays after planting at a minimum temperature

of aroun 18C.Sees require high temperatures to reach maturity, although long pe-

rio with temperatures above 37C etermine failures in see setting anconsequent abortion. Castorbean shoul not be plante in areas prone toerosion (Oplinger et al., 1990).

Castorbean grows well in various soil types; it has a fairly goo resist-ance to salinity, whereas excess moisture shoul be avoie, especiallyat the beginning of the cycle. The nutrient requirement is not particularlyhigh: a see prouction of 100 kg involves the uptake of 7, 2.5 an 7 kg of

N, P2O5 an K2O, respectively.

Figure 3.12 - Castorbean seeds.


56/265



Seedbed Preparation and Sowing

Sees shoul be assorte to remove inert material (e.g., crop resi-ues), sees with attache hulls, an amage sees. They shoul also

be treate with a fungicie before planting. This is particularly importantin areas with the risk of low spring temperatures an high soil moistureimmeiately after planting (Oplinger et al., 1990).

Castorbean sees are poisonous for animals an humans. In ai-tion, inhaling ust from the sees may cause allergic reactions in someiniviuals. See treatment shoul be performe carefully to minimiseust an to avoi contamination of foo an livestock fee (duke,

1983).Soil tillage is usually performe through moulboar or isk plough-

ing. At seeing time, it is important to ensure a moist soil at the plantingepth of 3-6 cm. Castorbean see shoul be plante about the same timeas maize. Of course, in tropical areas where castorbean is a perennial

plant, the crop establishment occurs once for several years (Oplinger etal. 1990).

Goo stans of castorbean require fairly heavy planting rates, as seegermination is usually rather low. Seeing at 12 to 18 kg/ha will give a

goo stan, epening on the see size an the height of the variety. In-ter-row with shoul be 75-100 cm; on-the-row spacing between plantsshoul be 20-30 cm, in orer to achieve a ensity of about 5 plants/m2. Because of ifferences in germination rates an plant size, growersshoul calculate rates base on the see lot. The weight of a thousansees greatly varies aroun an average of 250 g (Oplinger et al., 1990;duke, 1983).

Since castorbean sees are oily an easily broken, they can clog ma-chinery an cause irregular spacing. If not plante by han, most airseeers suitable for maize shoul perform well also for castor. Mechani-

cal seeers using metering plates will require plates with proper cell sizefor castor see. It is always important to check the seeing unit to ensurethat excessive bean cracking or crushing is not occurring uring planting(Oplinger et al., 1990; duke, 1983).

Other Cropping Operations

The most important aspect of soil fertility is to ensure the right ni-trogen supply. The amount of nitrogen to be applie varies epeningon general soil fertility, which may be summarize by the soil organic

matter content; 60 to 120 kg of N/ha represents a normal range. A splitapplication (pre-plant or pre-shooting plus sie-ress) may be bene-


57/265

Oil Crops 57

cial at the higher application rates or on light-texture soils (Brigham,1993).

In general, castorbean requires the same amount of nutrients as other

low-emaning el crops: approximately 25 kg P2O5 an 50 kg K2Oshoul be applie per ha. If soil tests are below the optimum threshol, 8kg P2O5 an 30 kg K2O shoul be ae to the previous rates. However,castorbean oes not generally respon to phosphorus, an excess soil

phosphorus levels can actually ecrease yiels (Oplinger et al., 1990;duke, 1983).

The slow emergence an early growth of castorbean means that theplant is not a strong competitor against wees. Rotary hoeing uring therst few weeks after planting, followe by inter-row cultivation shoul

provie an acceptable control. Since the main lateral roots of the plantare near the soil surface, inter-row tillage shoul be shallow. At present,herbicies are not registere for controlling wees in castorbean (Oplin-ger et al., 1990; duke, 1983).

Resistance to various iseases iffers among castorbean varieties.during perios of heavy rains or ews, capsule mols, Alternaria leafspot an bacterial leaf spot may occur.Alternaria leaf spot is more severin nitrogen-starve plants. Other iseases may occur, particularly in wetseasons. To help in the prevention of isease problems, goo rotation

programmes an see treatments with a fungicie prior to planting arerecommene (Oplinger et al., 1990; duke, 1983).

Though leaf- an stem-feeing insects usually o not cause seriousamage to castorbean, cutworms an wireworms may reuce plant stan.Several other pests (stink bugs, corn earworms, webworms, caterpillars,grasshoppers, thrips, spier mites, leaf miners, Lygus bugs an the Euro-

pean corn borer) are sometimes reporte to attack the plants (Brigham,1993).

Harvest

The castorbean crop is reay for harvest when all the capsules are ryan the leaves have fallen from the plants. In warm climates, the planttens to keep its leaves; in orer to ease harvest, a chemical efoliantmay be applie 10 to 15 ays ahea of the esire harvest ate. However,efoliants ten to reuce yiels. A elay in harvest after the crop is reaymay result in losses from capsule shattering, causing the sees to pop outof open fruits (duke, 1983). Yiels of 2-2.5 t/ha of ry see are recorein annual crops in favourable conitions. See oil content is about 50%,the rest being protein (20%), starch, bre, minerals.

The harvest can be performe with a moie combine harvester, orwith some maize harvesters. Since the beans are very prone to cracking


58/265


an splitting uring harvest, ajustment of the combine cyliner speean cyliner-concave clearance is very important. Usually, a low cylin-er spee an wie cyliner-concave clearance is recommene (Oplin-

ger et al., 1990; duke, 1983).Wees may also create problems uring harvest, as they may clog

machinery or pile in front of the harvester an cause shattering of thecastorbeans. If harvesting is one by han on perennial plants, pruningshoul be performe immeiately after, in orer to anticipate the nextcropping cycle. In the annual crop, the stalks remaining after harvestshoul be mechanically choppe prior to being incorporate into the soil.The stalks will rapily ecompose an furnish nutrients an organic mat-ter to the soil (Oplinger et al., 1990; duke, 1983).

3.5 Sunower

The Latin name for sunower (Helianthus annuus L.) comes from theGreek wors helios, sun, an anthos, ower; the secon element of theLatin binomial for sunower, annuus, means yearly. The sunower isnative to South America; it is believe that many ancient cultures usethe sunower for its therapeutic properties an in culinary practice. TheAztec an the Inca believe that the sunower represente the sun; the

plant was accoringly worshippe (Putnam et al. 1990).

Figure 3.13 - Sunower eld.


59/265

Oil Crops 59


The sunower is an annual herbaceous species, with a rough, hairy stem

1-4 m tall; broa, coarsely toothe, rough leaves, 7-30 cm long. Croppesunowers most commonly grow up to heights between 1.5 an 2.5 m.What is usually calle the ower actually is an inorescence (formallya composite ower) of several orets (small owers) crowe together.The outer orets are the sterile ray orets that can be of yellow, orange, or

Figure 3.14 - Sunower anatomy.


60/265


other colour. The inner orets (insie the circular hea) are calle iscorets, which mature into sees. The orets within the sunower hea arearrange in a spiral pattern. Typically, each oret is oriente towars the

next by approximately the same angle.Sunowers in the bu stage exhibit heliotropism. At sunrise, their

heas are turne towars the east. Over the course of the ay, they fol-low the sun from east to west, while at night they return to an eastwarorientation. This motion is performe by motor cells in the pulvinus, aexible segment of the stem just below the bu. As the bu stage ens,the stem stiffens an the plant gets in the blooming stage (FAO ecocrop:http://ecocrop.fao.org/, 2009).

3.5.2 Crop Cycle

Sunower is see-propagate; the sowing ate changes accoring tothe cropping area. This crop is grown in many warm to semi-ari regionsof the worl from Argentina to Canaa an from Cent

Documents

Handbook Energizing: Manual sobre Biocombustíveis e agricultura familiar nos países em desenvolvimento