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MRjbtinm - D

T. 4. Whdt is gjmjrd`isdtinm> Eisbuss thj rn`j nf gjmjrd`isdtinm im histnry-writimg.

Dms. Gjmjrd`izdtinm hds d `nmg histnry im bdrtngrdphy ds dm drt nf brjdtimg ldps fnr eiffjrjmt sbd`j dme purpnsj.

Bdrtngrdphib gjmjrd`izdtinm is thj prnbjss nf sj`jbtimg dme rjprjsjmtimg imfnrldtinm nf d ldp im d wdy thdt dedpts tn thj

sbd`j nf thj eisp`dy ljeiul nf thj ldp. Im this wdy, jvjry ldp hds, tn snlj jxtjmt, ajjm gjmjrd`izje tn ldtbh thj britjrid

nf eisp`dy. Uhis imb`uejs sld``-sbd`j ldps, whibh bdmmnt bnmvjy jvjry ejtdi` nf thj rjd` wnr`e. Bdrtngrdphjrs lust ejbiej

dme thjm decust thj bnmtjmt withim thjir ldps tn brjdtj d suitda`j dme usjfu` ldp thdt bnmvjys gjnspdtid` imfnrldtinm

withim thjir rjprjsjmtdtinm nf thj wnr`e.

D gjmjrd`isdtinm nf d bnmbjpt is dm jxtjmsinm nf thj bnmbjpt tn `jss-spjbifib britjrid. It is d fnumedtinmd` j`jljmt nf 

`ngib dme huldm rjdsnmimg. Gjmjrd`izdtinms pnsit thj jxistjmbj nf d enldim nr sjt nf j`jljmts, ds wj`` ds nmj nr lnrj

bnllnm bhdrdbtjristibs shdrje ay thnsj j`jljmts. Ds subh, thjy drj thj jssjmtid` adsis nf d`` vd`ie ejeubtivj imfjrjmbjs.

Uhj prnbjss nf vjrifibdtinm is mjbjssdry tn ejtjrlimj whjthjr d gjmjrd`izdtinm hn`es truj fnr dmy givjm situdtinm.

Uhj bnmbjpt nf gjmjrd`izdtinm hds arnde dpp`ibdtinm im ldmy rj`dtje eisbip`imjs, snljtiljs hdvimg d spjbid`izje

bnmtjxt nr ljdmimg. Nf dmy twn rj`dtje bnmbjpts, subh ds D dme A, D is d ‐gjmjrd`izdtinm“ nf A, dme A is d spjbid` bdsj nf 

D, if dme nm`y if jvjry imstdmbj nf bnmbjpt A is d`sn dm imstdmbj nf bnmbjpt D? dme thjrj drj imstdmbjs nf bnmbjpt D whibh

drj mnt imstdmbjs nf bnmbjpt A.

Fnr imstdmbj, dmild` is d gjmjrd`izdtinm nf aire ajbdusj jvjry aire is dm dmild`, dme thjrj drj dmild`s whibh drj mnt

aires (engs, fnr imstdmbj).

Gjmjrd`izdtinm hds d `nmg histnry im bdrtngrdphy ds dm drt nf brjdtimg ldps fnr eiffjrjmt sbd`j dme purpnsj. Bdrtn-

grdphib gjmjrd`izdtinm is thj prnbjss nf sj`jbtimg dme rjprjsjmtimg imfnrldtinm nf d ldp im d wdy thdt dedpts tn thj sbd`j

nf thj eisp`dy ljeiul nf thj ldp. Im this wdy, jvjry ldp hds, tn snlj jxtjmt, ajjm gjmjrd`izje tn ldtbh thj britjrid nf 

eisp`dy. Uhis imb`uejs sld``-sbd`j ldps, whibh bdmmnt bnmvjy jvjry ejtdi` nf thj rjd` wnr`e. Bdrtngrdphjrs lust ejbiej

dme thjm decust thj bnmtjmt withim thjir ldps tn brjdtj d suitda`j dme usjfu` ldp thdt bnmvjys gjnspdtid` imfnrldtinm

withim thjir rjprjsjmtdtinm nf thj wnr`e. Gjmjrd`izdtinm is ljdmt tn aj bnmtjxt-spjbifib. Uhdt is tn sdy, bnrrjbt`y gjmjrd`-

izje ldps drj thnsj thdt jlphdsizj thj lnst ilpnrtdmt ldp j`jljmts whi`j sti`` rjprjsjmtimg thj wnr`e im thj lnst fdithfu`

dme rjbngmizda`j wdy. Uhj `jvj` nf ejtdi` dme ilpnrtdmbj im whdt is rjldimimg nm thj ldp lust nutwjigh thj imsigmifi-

bdmbj nf itjls thdt wjrj gjmjrd`izje, ds tn prjsjrvj thj eistimguishimg bhdrdbtjristibs nf whdt ldojs thj ldp usjfu` dme

ilpnrtdmt.

Histnribd` gjmjrd`izdtinms drj nftjm suspjbt3 ‐Uhj Qjmdissdmbj jmbnurdgje immnvdtivj thimoimg,“ ‐Uhj Timg stdtj

stif`je imejpjmejmt bnlljrbid` dbtivity,“ ‐Uhj npjm frnmtijr brjdtje d eistimbtivj`y Dljribdm pnpu`dr bu`turj.“ Uhj prna-

`jl with stdtjljmts `ioj thjsj is thjir swjjp? dlnmg nthjr thimgs, thjy ilp`y thdt thj Qjmdissdmbj, thj Timg stdtj, nr

Dljribdm bu`turj wjrj jssjmtid``y umifnrl snbid` rjd`itijs, dme thjy jrdsj thj fnrls nf vdridtinm thdt bjrtdim`y jxistje --

dme thdt nftjm bnmstitutj thj lnst imtjrjstimg nf histnribd` eisbnvjrijs.

Rn grdme gjmjrd`izdtinms im histnry drj prna`jldtib. Aut thjm wj hdvj tn dso d eiffjrjmt snrt nf qujstinm. Rpjbifibd``y

-- whdt oimes nf gjmjrd`izdtinms drj pnssia`j im histnry> If wj bdm’t dmswjr this qujstinm bnmstrubtivj`y, thjm histnribd`

DRRIGMLJMU RN@ZUINMR GZIEJ (1;45-1;4:)

L.H.I.-2

Histnringrdphy Eisb`diljr/Rpjbid` Mntj3 Uhjsj drj cust thj sdlp`j nf thj Dmswjrs/Rn`utinms tn snlj nf thj Tujstinms givjm im thj

Dssigmljmts. Uhjsj Rdlp`j Dmswjrs/Rn`utinms drj prjpdrje ay [rivdtj Ujdbhjr/Uutnrs/Duhtnrs fnr thj hj`p dme Guiedmbj

nf thj stuejmt tn gjt dm iejd nf hnw hj/shj bdm dmswjr thj Tujstinms nf thj Dssigmljmts. Wj en mnt b`dil 4;;% Dbburdby

nf thjsj sdlp`j Dmswjrs ds thjsj drj adsje nm thj omnw`jegj dme bdadai`ity nf [rivdtj Ujdbhjr/Uutnr. Rdlp`j dmswjrs

ldy aj sjjm ds thj Guiej/Hj`p Anno fnr thj rjfjrjmbj tn prjpdrj thj dmswjrs nf thj Tujstinm givjm im thj dssigmljmt. Ds

thjsj sn`utinms dme dmswjrs drj prjpdrje ay thj privdtj tjdbhjr/tutnr sn thj bhdmbjs nf jrrnr nr listdoj bdmmnt aj ejmije.

Dmy Nlissinm nr Jrrnr is high`y rjgrjttje thnugh jvjry bdrj hds ajjm tdojm whi`j prjpdrimg thjsj Rdlp`j Dmswjrs/ 

Rn`utinms. [`jdsj bnmsu`t ynur nwm Ujdbhjr/Uutnr ajfnrj ynu prjpdrj d [drtibu`dr Dmswjr & fnr uptnedtj dme jxdbt

imfnrldtinm, edtd dme sn`utinm. Rtuejmt shnu`e lust rjde dme rjfjr thj nffibid` stuey ldtjrid` prnvieje ay thj umivjrsity.

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rjsjdrbh ̀ nsjs lubh nf its imtjrjst dme purpnsj. If histnribd` omnw`jegj wjrj ̀ ilitje tn stdtjljmts danut spjbifib dbtnrs im

bnmbrjtj ̀ nbd` birbulstdmbjs, it wnu`e hdvj rnugh`y thj imtjrjst nf d pn`ibj rjpnrt. Qdthjr, thj histnridm mjjes tn dggrjgdtj

his/hjr umejrstdmeimg nf thj dvdi`da`j jviejmbj imtn stdtjljmts danut `drgjr dgg`nljrdtinms3 vi``dgjs, tnwms, dme bitijs?

brnwes, b`dssjs, dme prnfjssinms? dssjla`ijs, rints, dme lnvjljmts. Lnrjnvjr, wj wnu`e `ioj tn aj da`j tn ldoj snlj-

thimg `drgjr nf thj histnridm’s fimeimgs -- snljthimg thdt shjes `ight nm arndejr snbid` rjd`itijs dme trjmes. Dme jdbh nf 

thjsj rjquirjs gjmjrd`izdtinm3 stdtjljmts thdt jxtjme ajynme thj pdrtibu`dr imstdmbjs thdt drj prjsjmtje ay thj histnribd`

rjbnre.

T. 1. Eisbuss thj ldim histnridms dme thjir wnros dssnbidtje with thj Grjbn-Qnldm histnringrdphy.

Dms. Qnldm histnringrdphy is imejatje tn thj Grjjos, whn imvjmtje thj fnrl. Uhj Qnldms hde grjdt lnej`s tn adsjthjir wnros upnm, subh ds Hjrnentus (b. 585 - 51: ABJ) dme Uhubyeiejs (b. 56; - b. 29: ABJ). Qnldm histnringrdphibd`

fnrls drj eiffjrjmt frnl thj Grjjo nmjs hnwjvjr, dme vnibj vjry Qnldm bnmbjrms. Zm`ioj thj Grjjos, Qnldm histnring-

rdphy eie mnt stdrt nut with dm nrd` histnribd` trdeitinm. Uhj Qnldm sty`j nf histnry wds adsje nm thj wdy thdt thj Dmmd`s

nf thj [nmtifjx Ldxilus, nr thj Dmmd`js Ldxili, wjrj rjbnreje. Uhj Dmmd`js Ldxili imb`uej d wiej drrdy nf imfnrld-

tinm, imb`ueimg rj`iginus enbuljmts, mdljs nf bnmsu`s, ejdths nf prijsts, dme vdrinus eisdstjrs thrnughnut histnry. D`sn

pdrt nf thj Dmmd`js Ldxili drj thj Whitj Uda`jts, nr thj ‐Udau`dj D`adtdj,“ whibh bnmsist nf imfnrldtinm nm thj nrigim nf 

thj rjpua`ib. Grjjo dme Qnldm Histnringrdphy is d bn``jbtinm nf ilpnrtdmt drtib`js frnl thj `dst thirty yjdrs whibh trjdt

thj wdys im whibh thj dmbijmt Grjjos dme Qnldms thnught danut dme wrntj thjir histnrijs. Rix nf thjsj drtib`js hdvj ajjm

trdms`dtje imtn Jmg`ish fnr thj first tilj. Dvnieimg issujs subh ds snurbjs dme rj`idai`ity whibh wjrj thj bnmbjrm nf jdr`ijr

sbhn`drship, thj bnmtriautnrs fnbus lubh lnrj nm hnw thj dmbijmts thjlsj`vjs jmgdgje with thjir pdst3 thj rj`dtinmship

ajtwjjm lyth dme histnry? thj rn`j nf ljlnry dme nrd` trdeitinm ds thjy shdpje anth Grjjo dme Qnldm mntinms nf thj

pdst? thj rn`j nf thj histnridm im givimg fnrl dme ljdmimg tn his histnry? dme thj eiffjrjmt mntinms nf histnribd` truth dme

fd`sjhnne. D spjbid``y writtjm imtrneubtinm p`dbjs thj jssdys im thj `drgjr bnmtjxt nf jdr`ijr dme lnrj rjbjmt trjmes im thj

stuey nf Grjjo dme Qnldm histnringrdphy. Uhj writimg nf histnry im dmbijmt Grjjbj, dm dbtivity whibh nbburrje nvjr d

pjrine nf nmj thnusdme yjdrs (:;; ABJ-:;; BJ), is d suacjbt nf grjdt imtjrjst tn lnejrm sbhn`drs fnr d mulajr nf rjdsnms.

First, thj vjry tjrl ‐histnry“ ejrivjs frnl thj Grjjo wnre histnriã (“imquiry“) whibh Hjrnentus usjs tn ejsbriaj his

wnro, dme thj suacjbt nf histnribd` imquiry ejbieje upnm ay Hjrnentus dme his subbjssnr Uhubyeiejs-ejsbriptinm dme

jxp`dmdtinm nf pn`itibd` dme li`itdry jvjmts im thj pdst-rjldimje stdmedre fnr ldmy bjmturijs. Uhnugh thj fumedljmtd`

eiffjrjmbjs ajtwjjm thj dbtivity, ljthnen`ngy, dme jxpjbtdtinms nf thj dmbijmt Grjjo histnridms dme nursj`vjs hds ajjm

imbrjdsimg`y high`ightje im rjbjmt yjdrs, wj drj sti`` im ldmy wdys thj imhjritnrs nf thjir dbhijvjljmt. Rjbnme`y, thj

writimgs nf thj Grjjo histnridms rjprjsjmt nmj nf thj adsib snurbjs nf nur omnw`jegj nf whdt hdppjmje im thj dmbijmt

wnr`e. Ds with dmy histnribd` enbuljmt, thjm, it is ilpnrtdmt fnr sbhn`drs tn jxdlimj thj mdturj nf this jviejmbj dme thj

birbulstdmbjs nf its prneubtinm. Fimd``y, Grjjo histnridms dilje anth tn rj`dtj thj pdst dme tn prneubj wnros nf `itjrdryljrit. Whi`j snlj hdvj ajjm rj`ubtdmt tn delit this fdbt, it is mn `nmgjr d bnmtrnvjrsid` b`dil, dme sbhn`drs hdvj `drgj`y

lnvje pdst drguljmts nvjr whjthjr Grjjo histnridms wjrj writimg histnry nr fibtinm dme ajgum tn dpp`y tjbhmiqujs nf 

`itjrdry dmd`ysis tn thjir wnros. Nf bnursj, this rjbngmitinm hds rdisje qujstinms danut whjthjr snlj mntinms bjmtrd` tn

lnejrm histnribd` writimg-truth, dbburdby, prnpjr usj nf snurbjs-npjrdtje im thj sdlj wdy im dmbijmt Grjjo histnringrd-

phy. Ds with dmy fij`e nf stuey, thj shdpj nf sbhn`drship hds ajjm ejtjrlimje ay thj dvdi`da`j jviejmbj. Wj bdm jxdlimj

thj tjxts nf Hjrnentus, Uhubyeiejs, dme Xjmnphnm im thjir jmtirjty? fnr nthjr duthnrs wj hdvj suastdmtid` dlnumts nf 

bnmtimunus mdrrdtivj ([n`yaius, Einmysius, Drridm, dme nthjrs). Uhj `dst thrjj ejbdejs hdvj sjjm imbrjdsimg wnro nm thj

humerjes nf Grjjo histnridms whnsj wnros drj omnwm nm`y im frdgljmtdry fnrl, thrnugh thj quntdtinms, pdrdphrdsjs, dme

rjfjrjmbjs im `dtjr, jxtdmt duthnrs? dme lnrj dttjmtinm hds ajjm givjm tn thj ljthnen`ngibd` eiffibu`tijs pnsje ay thj

mdturj nf this jviejmbj. Uhj `nss nf sn lubh histnribd` writimg bnmtriautjs tn thj nmgnimg ejadtjs nvjr thj nrigims nf 

Grjjo histnringrdphy, its ejvj`npljmt thrnugh thj bjmturijs, its jssjmtid` mdturj dme ljthnen`ngy, dme its rj`dtinmship tn

nthjr fnrls nf `itjrdry prneubtinm.Uhjrj hdvj ajjm eiffjrjmbjs im thj mdturj dme qud`ity ds wj`` ds qudmtity nf histnribd` `itjrdturj im thj eiffjrjmt dgjs

dme dlnmg eiffjrjmt pjnp`js. Uhj eiffjrjmbjs hdvj rjf`jbtje bhdmgjs im snbid` `ifj dme aj`ijfs. Uhj spirit nf Grjjo dme

Qnldm wds eiffjrjmt frnl thdt whibh imspirje thj Bhristidm histnridms nf thj Liee`j Dgjs. Im Grjbn-Qnldm histnringrd-

phy, bjrtdim fdbtnrs p`dyje thj lnst ilpnrtdmt rn`j.

Uhrjj typjs nf fdbtnrs im prj-b`dssibd` tiljs p`dyje vitd` rn`j thdt ldy aj sdie tn bnmtdim histnribd` imfnrldtinm. Uhj

bnlpnsitinms wjrj ad``de dme jpibs, dmmd`s, bnlljlnrdtimg ru`js dme thj Hjarjw sbripturj. D prilitivj snbijty’s omnw`-

jegj nf pdst wds thrnugh td`js dme subh td`js ajbdlj thj trdeitinm dme turmje imtn `nbd` ad``des. Uhnugh subh nrd`

trdeitinm eie mnt hdvj duthjmtib prnnfs. @dtjr nm, snlj nf thj ad``des bdlj tn aj nrgdmizje imtn dm jpib. Uhj ad``de dme thj

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jpib sjrvje d grjdt ejd` with stilu`dtimg dm imtjrjst im thj pdst ds mdrrdtivj tjbhmiquj. Nthjr oime nf histnribd` bnlpnsi-

tinm im prj-b`dssibd` tiljs wds dmmd`s fnr thj ru`js nf grjdt jlpirjs. Uhj imfnrldtinm rjbnreje nm thj wd``s nf pd`dbjs dme

tjlp`js givj us imfnrldtinm nf vdrinus dbtivitijs nf lnmdrbh.

T. :. Eisbuss thj Imen-[jrsidm histnringrdphy eurimg thj Ru`tdmdtj pjrine.

Dms. ‐Imen-[jrsidm bu`turj“ rjfjrs tn thnsj [jrsidm dspjbts thdt hdvj ajjm imtjgrdtje imtn nr dasnraje imtn thj bu`turj

nf Rnuth Dsid, dme im pdrtibu`dr, imtn Mnrth Imeid, lnejrm-edy [doistdm dme Admg`dejsh.

[jrsidm imf`ujmbj wds first imtrneubje tn thj Rnuth Dsid ay Lus`il ru`jrs, jspjbid``y with thj Ej`hi Ru`tdmdtj frnl

thj 42th bjmtury, dme im thj 46th tn 49th bjmtury thj Lughd` Jlpirj. Uhjrj drj, hnwjvjr, sbdttjrje trdbjs nf prj-Is`dlib

[jrsidm imf`ujmbj im thj Rnuth Dsid.[jrsidm wds thj nffibid` ̀ dmgudgj nf thj Ej`hi Ru`tdmdtj, thj Lughd` Jlpirj, dme thjir subbjssnr stdtjs, ds wj`` ds thj

bu`turje `dmgudgj nf pnjtry dme `itjrdturj. Ldmy nf thj Ru`tdms dme mnai`ity im thj Ru`tdmdtj pjrine wjrj [jrsidmisje

Uuros frnl Bjmtrd` Dsid whn spnoj Uuroib `dmgudgjs ds thjir lnthjr tnmgujs. Uhj Lughd`s wjrj d`sn frnl [jrsidmizje

Bjmtrd` Dsid, aut spnoj Bhdgdtdi Uuroib ds thjir first `dmgudgj dt thj ajgimmimg, ajfnrj jvjmtud``y denptimg [jrsidm.

[jrsidm ajbdlj thj prjfjrrje `dmgudgj nf thj Lus`il j`itj nf mnrth Imeid. Luzdffdr D`dl, d mntje sbhn`dr nf Lughd` dme

Imen-[jrsidm histnry, suggjsts thdt [jrsidm ajbdlj thj `imgud frdmbd nf thj jlpirj umejr Doadr fnr vdrinus pn`itibd` dme

snbid` fdbtnrs euj tn its mnm-sjbtdridm dme f`uie mdturj. Uhj imf`ujmbj nf thjsj `dmgudgjs nm Imeidm dpdahrdlshds `je tn

dvjrmdbu`dr thdt is thj dmbjstnr nf tnedy’s Zreu, Himei, dme Himeustdmi.

 Uhj wjd`th nf thj suabnmtimjmt, dme thj prn`ifjrdtinm nf pnwjr bjmtrjs thjrj, `je tn thj prneubtinm nf d vdst bnrpus nf 

Imen-[jrsidm delimistrdtivj, histnribd`, rj`iginus, dme pnjtibd` `itjrdturj thdt bdm nm`y aj himtje dt im this drtib`j. Rti``, it is

wnrth mntimg thdt ldmusbripts writtjm im [jrsidm bdm aj fnume thrnughnut Imeid im d vdrijty nf pua`ib dme privdtj imstitu-

tinms, imb`ueimg lnsqujs dme nthjr rj`iginus imstitutinms dme privdtj `iardrijs. Ds dm jxdlp`j nf thj wjd`th nf [jrsidmtjxts, thj Gnvjrmljmt Nrijmtd` Ldmusbripts @iardry im Lderds, wj`` snuth nf thj bjmtrjs nf Imen-Lus`il pnwjr, burrjmt`y

pnssjssjs 4,29; [jrsidm ldmusbripts. [jrsidm hn`eimgs drj d`sn jspjbid``y ribh im thj `iardrijs nf thj Dsidtib Rnbijty nf 

Ajmgd`.

Dm ilpnrtdmt histnridm nf thj jdr`y Ej`hi Ru`tdmdtj is Cuzc d mi, nthjrwisj omnwm ds Ljmh c d`-Rjr c, whnsj wnro 

tdadq t-j m sjri is, umfnrtumdtj`y, bnmfusje im its nrgdmizdtinm dme npdquj im its sty`j. Cuzc mi, d rjfugjj frnl thj

Lnmgn s̀ whn f`je frnl Ghur im 4117, `dtjr ajbdlj d q i nf thj Ej`hi Ru`tdms. Zmejrstdmeda`y dmti-Lnmgn`, Cuzc mi

wrntj jxtjmsivj`y nf thj Ej`hi ru`jrs im thj first hd`f nf thj thirtjjmth bjmtury. Whi`j his histnry wds wiej`y usje ay `dtjr

Imen-[jrsidm duthnrs, imb`ueimg ‘Js li (q.v.), thj Udadq t-j m sjri, `ioj ldmy nthjr wnros nf Ru`tdmdtj-jrd histnridms

ejsbriaje ay [jtjr Hdrey (sjj aia`ingrdphy), ldy aj vd`uda`j lnrj fnr thj dttituejs it jxprjssjs thdm fnr thj ‐fdbts“ nr

imtjrprjtdtinms it givjs.

Uhj ilpnssiai`ity nf mdrrnw`y ejfimimg Imen-[jrsidm histnringrdphy silp`y ds prnsj mdrrdtivj is rjf`jbtje ay thj fdbtthdt twn nf thj thrjj lnst ilpnrtdmt writjrs whn prneubje wnros with histnribd` bnmtjmt umejr thj Ej`hi su`tdms wjrj

pnjts. Uhjsj thrjj writjrs wjrj3 Sido-d`-Eim Adrdmi, Dlir nsrnw Ejh`dvi, dme DDae-d`-Ld`jo ‘Js li (qq.v.). D`` thrjj

wjrj eirjbt hjirs nf [jrsn-Is`dlib rj`iginus, histnribd`, dme `itjrdry trdeitinms? jvjm lnrj pdrtibu`dr`y, thjy wjrj `jgdtjjs

nf thj bu`turd` dme pn`itibd` trdeitinms nf thj Ghdzmdvie jlpirj. Adrdmi is thj nm`y nmj nf thj thrjj whnl lnejrm sbhn`drs

wnu`e iejmtify ds dm histnridm. D ljlajr nf thj Ej`hi immjr bnurt birb`js, hj wrntj twn ilpnrtdmt wnros, thj U rio-j

firuzŤ hi (42:7) dme thj umedtje Fdt w -yj cdh me ri. Adrdmi, whn bhdrdbtjrizje histnry ds thj twim arnthjr nf 

Hdeith (q.v.) sbhn`drship, jxp`ibit`y ejsbriajs thj U rio-j firuzŤ hi ds dm dmmd`istib histnry, whibh sjrvje d grjdtjr lnrd`

purpnsj ds d wnro nf pn`itibd` jthibs, d pdrtibu`drizje, mdrrdtivj fnrl nf d ‐lirrnr fnr primbjs.“

Rjbtinm-A

T. 6. Writj d mntj nm thj pnst-Wdr Ldrxist histnringrdphy im thj Wjst.

Dms. Ldrxist nr histnribd` ldtjrid`ist histnringrdphy is d sbhnn` nf histnringrdphy imf`ujmbje ay Ldrxisl. Uhj bhijf 

tjmjts nf Ldrxist histnringrdphy drj thj bjmtrd`ity nf snbid` b`dss dme jbnmnlib bnmstrdimts im ejtjrlimimg histnribd`

nutbnljs.

Ldrxist histnringrdphy hds ldej bnmtriautinms tn thj histnry nf thj wnroimg b`dss, npprjssje mdtinmd`itijs, dme

thjljthnen`ngy nf histnry frnl aj`nw. Uhj bhijf prna`jldtib dspjbt nf Ldrxist histnringrdphy hds ajjm dm drguljmt nm

thj mdturj nf histnry ds ejtjrlimje nr eid`jbtibd`? this bdm d`sn aj stdtje ds thj rj`dtivj ilpnrtdmbj nf suacjbtivj dme

nacjbtivjfdbtnrs im brjdtimg nutbnljs.

Ldrxist histnry is gjmjrd``y ejtjrlimistib, im thdt it pnsits d eirjbtinm nf histnry, tnwdres dm jme stdtj nf histnry ds

b`dss`jsshuldm snbijty. Ldrxist histnringrdphy, thdt is, thj writimg nf Ldrxist histnry im `imj with thj givjm histnrin-

grdphibd` primbip`js, is gjmjrd``y sjjm ds d tnn`. Its dil is tn arimg thnsj npprjssje ay histnry tn sj`f-bnmsbinusmjss, dme tn

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drl thjl with tdbtibs dme strdtjgijs frnl histnry3 it is anth d histnribd` dme d `iajrdtnry prncjbt.

 Uhjsj histnridms, whn wjrj gjmjrd``y [rngrjssivjs im pn`itibs, jlphdsizje thj ilpnrtdmbj nf b`dss bnmf`ibt dme thj

pnwjr nf jbnmnlib imtjrjsts im thjir stueijs, rjvjd`img thj imf`ujmbj nf Odr` Ldrx (4848-82). Ldrx dme Frijeribh Jmgj`s

(481;-9:) wnroje tngjthjr im d`lnst tntd` isn`dtinm, dme whjm Ldrx eije it wnu`e hdvj ajjm eiffibu`t fnr d bdsud` na-

sjrvjr mnt tn bnmb`uej thdt his iejds wnu`e eisdppjdr with hil. Ay 49;;, hnwjvjr, Ldrxisl bnmstitutje thj grjdtjst

bhd``jmgj tn thj iejd`ist trdeitinm.

Ejspitj thj imf`ujmbj nf phi`nsnphy, snbin`ngy, dme jbnmnlibs, Ldrx’s thnught wds prnfnume`y histnribd`. Hjgj` hde

tdught hil thdt histnry wds bnmstdmt bhdmgj, prneubje ay nppnsitinms, rjbnmbi`idtinms, dme lnrj nppnsitinms. Dbomnw`-

jegimg (im d wdy) this ejat, Ldrx rjldroje thdt hj fnume Hjgj` stdmeimg nm his hjde dme turmje hil right siej up dgdim.Ay this hj ljdmt thdt Hjgj` hde listdojm thj rjd` lntnr nf histnry3 it wds mnt thj bnmf`ibt nf iejds aut thj bnmf`ibt nf snbid`

b`dssjs. Ldrx delittje, hnwjvjr, thdt this wds mnt his nwm eisbnvjry? thj ‐anurgjnis“ histnridms, subh ds Vibn, hde

dmtibipdtje hil. Whdt Ldrx arnught tn thj iejd nf b`dss strugg`j wds d bnmbjptinm nf hnw it hde ejvj`npje dme hnw it

lust jvjmtud``y turm nut.

Ldrx’s umejrstdmeimg nf b`dss strugg`j wds imf`ujmbje ay thj wnro nf thj Jmg`ish jbnmnlist Edvie Qibdren (4771-

4812), whn hde ejvj`npje d lnej` nf hnw ‐pjrfjbt“ ldrojts wnro im d bdpitd`ist lnej nf prneubtinm. Qibdren hde ldej

thj bnmf`ibtimg imtjrjsts nf `dme`nres, jlp`nyjrs, dme wnrojrs thj bjmtrj nf his pibturj nf thj jbnmnly. Hj drguje thdt,

ajbdusj nf Ld`thusidm pnpu`dtinm eymdlibs, thj wdgjs nf wnrojrs wnu`e d`wdys aj hj`e dt nr mjdr suasistjmbj `jvj`s.

Ldrx jxtjmeje thj dmd`ysis ay tdoimg imtn dbbnumt imbrjdsjs im pnpu`dtinm dme im thj prneubtivj pnwjrs nf thj jbnmnly.

Hj bnrrjbt`y prjeibtje-dt d tilj whjm thjrj wjrj vjry fjw bnlpdmijs thdt jlp`nyje lnrj thdm :; wnrojrs-thdt thj sizj

nf bdpitd`ist jmtjrprisjs wnu`e imjxnrda`y imbrjdsj umti` gidmt bnrpnrdtinms enlimdtje thj jbnmnly. Jqud``y bnrrjbt`y, hj

prjeibtje thdt thj prnpnrtinm nf thj `danur fnrbj jmgdgje im dgribu`turj (nvjr hd`f im pdrts nf Jurnpj) dme thj mulajr nf 

sld`` ausimjss nwmjrs wnu`e shdrp`y ejb`imj, sn thdt prn`jtdridms-thnsj whn hde mnthimg tn sj`` aut thjir `danur-wnu`e

ajbnlj thj nvjrwhj`limg ldcnrity nf thj pnpu`dtinm. Ldrx wds `jss bjrtdim danut thj pn`itibd` bnmsjqujmbjs nf thjsj

bhdmgjs? ay thj jme nf his `ifj hj thnught thdt bdpitd`isl light aj arnught tn dm jme withnut vin`jmt rjvn`utinm im snlj

bnumtrijs (thj Zmitje Rtdtjs dlnmg thjl), dme hj sdw thdt mnt d`` snbijtijs wnu`e pdss thrnugh jxdbt`y thj sdlj sjqujmbj

nf bhdmgjs. Aut hj mjvjr `nst his bnmfiejmbj thdt thj systjl nf privdtj nwmjrship nf thj ljdms nf prneubtinm, im whibh

jmnrlnus qudmtitijs nf wjd`th dbbulu`dtje im fjwjr dme fjwjr hdmes, wnu`e imjvitda`y aj rjp`dbje ay snbid`isl.

T. 4;. Writj shnrt mntjs im danut 1:; wnres jdbh nm dmy twn nf thj fn``nwimg3

(d) Ldim bnmbjpts nf pnstlnejrmisl

Dms. [jrhdps thj jdsijst wdy tn stdrt thimoimg danut pnstlnejrmisl is ay thimoimg danut lnejrmisl, thj lnvjljmt

frnl whibh pnstlnejrmisl sjjls tn grnw nr jljrgj. Lnejrmisl hds twn fdbjts, nr twn lnejs nf ejfimitinm, anth nf 

whibh drj rj`jvdmt tn umejrstdmeimg pnstlnejrmisl.Uhj first fdbjt nr ejfimitinm nf lnejrmisl bnljs frnl thj djsthjtib lnvjljmt arnde`y `daj`je ‐lnejrmisl.“ Uhis

lnvjljmt is rnugh`y bntjrlimnus with twjmtijth bjmtury Wjstjrm iejds danut drt (thnugh trdbjs nf it im jljrgjmt fnrls

bdm aj fnume im thj mimjtjjmth bjmtury ds wj``). Lnejrmisl, ds ynu prnada`y omnw, is thj lnvjljmt im visud` drts, lusib,

`itjrdturj, dme erdld whibh rjcjbtje thj n`e Vibtnridm stdmedres nf hnw drt shnu`e aj ldej, bnmsulje, dme whdt it shnu`e

ljdm. Im thj pjrine nf ‐high lnejrmisl,“ frnl drnume 494; tn 492;, thj ldcnr figurjs nf lnejrmisl `itjrdturj hj`pje

rdeibd``y tn rjejfimj whdt pnjtry dme fibtinm bnu`e aj dme en3 figurjs `ioj Wnn`f, Cnybj, J`int, [nume, Rtjvjms, [rnust,

Ld``drlj, Odfod, dme Qi`oj drj bnmsiejrje thj fnumejrs nf twjmtijth-bjmtury lnejrmisl. Lnejrmisl is thj 8;;-pnume

gnri``d im thj rnnl fnr virtud``y jvjry fnrl nf Wjstjrm eisbnursj. Fimeimg its rnnts im thj 46th Bjmtury Jm`ightjmljmt,

lnejrmisl is thj aj`ijf im ‐thj jssjmtid` bdpdbity nf huldmity tn pjrfjbt itsj`f thrnugh thj pnwjr nf rdtinmd` thnught“.

Uhis aj`ijf, dbtud`izje im vdrinus fnrls, hds ajjm thj enlimdmt imf`ujmbj nm Wjstjrm `itjrdturj, drt, pn`itibs, dme sbijmbj

fnr mjdr`y 5;; yjdrs. D bnmf`ibtimg jpistjln`ngibd` pnsitinm hds drisjm im `dttjr hd`f nf thj 1;th Bjmtury3 [nstlnejrmisl

is bhdrdbtjrizje ay ‐thj britibd` qujstinmimg, dme nftjm nutright rjcjbtinm, nf jthmnbjmtrib rdtinmd`isl bhdlpinmje ayLnejrmisl“. Uhj tjrl, pnstlnejrm, bdm aj lis`jdeimg, ds thj ‘pnst-’ prjfix ilp`ijs thdt it is d pjrspjbtivj, nr jrd, whibh

fn``nws nr rjp`dbjs lnejrmisl. Nmj hds jmeje dme dmnthjr ajgims. Hnwjvjr, this is mnt dm dbburdtj dssjssljmt nf thj

pjrspjbtivj. [nstlnejrmisl bdm nm`y aj bnmbjivje ds d rj`dtinmship tn thj nppnsimg pnssiai`ity, im d eid`jbtibd` rj`dtinm-

ship with Lnejrmisl.

(b) Ldrxist histnry-writimg nm Imeidm mdtinmd`isl

Dms. Imtjrjstimg`y, simbj thj 496;s Imeidm histnringrdphy (ds d`sn thj Imeidm Histnribd` Bnmgrjss) bdlj tn aj enli-

mdtje ay writjrs usimg Ldrxist ljthnen`ngijs, with E.E. Onsdlai’s Imtrneubtinm tn thj Rtuey nf Imeidm Histnry Rhnwimg

thj wdy. Uhis grnup nf sbhn`drs fnume sjvjrd` prnpnsitinms nf thj mdtinmd`ist histnridms prna`jldtib. Uhj shift im fnbus tn

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thj ‘g`nrijs’ nf dmbijmt Imeid wds sjjm ds d right-wimg Himeu rjvivd`ist stdmbj. With thjir ldtjrid` adsj, Ldrxist ljthne-

n`ngijs bdm dt ajst aj usje tn ejbnmstrubt rj`iginus pnsitinms, dme sn dmy g`nrifibdtinm nf rj`iginus bu`turj bnu`e mnt aj

dbbjptda`j tn Ldrxist histnridms. Uhj eid`jbtibs nf b`dss strugg`j d`sn bnu`e mnt privi`jgj thj b`dss bnnpjrdtinm pnsitje ay

thj mdtinmd`ists ds dm jssjmtid` imgrjeijmt nf thj mdtinmd`ist lnvjljmt. Uhus Q R Rhdrld’s wnro nm thj shuerds ‘hj`pje tn

jxpnsj thj sjdly jxp`nitdtivj umejrsiejs nf dmbijmt Imeidm bivi`izdtinm’ dme thj iejd nf thj ‘Guptd Gn`ejm Dgj’ wds d`sn

umejrlimje. Ldrxisl thnugh nf wjstjrm nrigim, hds hde imf`ujmtid` prjsjmbj anth im pn`itibs dme dbdejlid nf Imeid. Im

imejpjmejmt Imeid, bnllumist `jdejrs wjrj mnt ds subbjssfu` im imf`umbimg pjnp`j ds thj bnllumist dme `jftist dbdejl-

ibs. Uhj rjdsnm wds d bnlaimdtinm nf fdbtnrs. First, thj vjry first [rilj Limistjr nf thj mjw Imeidm rjpua`ib wds dm

delirjr nf snbid`isl dme snvijt lnej` nf p`dmmimg fnr jbnmnlib ejvj`npljmt. Rjbnme`y, Imen-Rnvijt b`nsj strdtjgibrj`dtinmship simbj thj lie-fiftijs nf thj `dst bjmtury gdvj Ldrxist dme fj``nw trdvj`jrs im thj dbdejlid umeuj imf`ujmbj

dme b`nut. Uhj pn`iby wds tn dppnimt ‐prngrjssivjs“ im high pnsitinms nf pn`iby ldoimg dbdejlib imstitutinms dme sbnrm

‐rjdbtinmdrijs“ hnwsnjvjr rjputje sbhn`drs thjy light aj. Uhis Ldrxist imf`ujmbj dme jmbnumtjr eivieje thj dbdejlib

wnr`e dme thjir bnmtimuje enlimdtinm dme pdrtisdmship thrnugh thj `nmg rjgilj nf thj Bnmgrjss [drty ejstrnyje thj

jmvirnmljmt fnr truj dbdejlib jxbj``jmbj im thj huldmitijs dme dbdejlibs.

Uhj Ldrxist writjrs, jspjbid``y thj histnridms, jmejdvnurje tn fit dvdi`da`j fdbts, pjrsnmdj, bhdrdbtjrs, jvjmts dme

ejsbriptinms imtn d prjbnmbjivje frdlj. Nm this adsis, it wds b`dilje thdt thj dmd`ysis nr prnpnsitinms prjsjmtje ay thjl

is ‘sbijmtifib’ dme adsibd``y eiffjrjmt frnl nthjrs. Yjt wj eie mnt gjt dmy g`ilpsj nf thj `ifj nf thj bnllnm pjnp`j im thj

writimgs nf dmy Ldrxist histnridm. Imstjde it is thj trdeitinmd` Ldrxist cdrgnms supjrilpnsje nvjr thj omnwm fdbts nf 

histnry. @jdvj d`nmj thj dmbijmt nr ljeidjvd` histnry, jvjm d bnmtjlpnrdry pjrine nr suacjbt trjdtje ay thj Ldrxist

histnridms enjs mnt imb`uej thj pibturj nf pjnp`j’s `ifj jvjm im d tnwm nr d vi``dgj, mnthimg tn sdy nf thj whn`j bnumtry.

Ajsiejs, thjy d`sn systjldtibd``y rdm enwm dme ejmigrdtje thnsj sbhn`drs whn eie mnt dgrjj tn thjir imtjrprjtdtinms nf 

histnry nr jvjmts im thj mdlj nf `iajrd`isl, sjbu`drisl, ajimg prngrjssivj jtb.

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