Associação Portuguesa dos Recursos Hídricos / UNIVALI · Porto, PORTUGAL Fernando Perna Universidade do Algarve Faro, PORTUGAL Fernando Veloso Gomes Universidade do Porto Porto,

Editor / EditorsAssociao Portuguesa dos Recursos Hdricos / UNIVALI

Formatao e paginao / LayoutAndr Cardoso

Design da capa / Cover designFlatland Design

ISSN 1646-8872

Revista de Gesto Costeira IntegradaJournal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Volume 10, Nmero 3 / Volume 10, Number 3

Setembro 2010 / September 2010

www.aprh.pt/rgci www.gci.inf.br

Corpo Editorial / Editorial Board

J. Alveirinho Dias([email protected])J. Antunes do Carmo

([email protected])Marcus Polette

([email protected])

Comisso Cientfica / Scientific Committee

Adriano A. Bordalo(Universidade do Porto,

Porto, PORTUGAL)Ana Vila-Concejo

(University of Sydney,Sidney, AUSTRLIA)

Cassiano Monteiro-Neto(Universidade Federal Fluminense,

Niteroi, RJ, BRASIL)Frderic Bertrand

(Universit de Paris 1 (Sorbonne) Paris, FRANA)Joo Alveirinho Dias

(Universidade do Algarve,Faro, PORTUGAL)

Lauro J. Calliari(Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul,

Carreiros, RS, BRASIL)Marcus Polette

(Universidade do Vale do Itaja,Itaja, SC, BRASIL)

scar Ferreira(Universidade do Algarve,

Faro, PORTUGAL)Rainer Wehrhahn

(Universidade de Kiel Kiel, ALEMANHA)

Alexander Turra(Universidade de So Paulo,

So Paulo, SP, BRASIL)Andr Bustorff Fortunato

(Laboratrio Nacional de Engenharia Civil,Lisboa, PORTUGAL)

Dieter Muehe(Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro,

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASIL)Helena Granja

(Universidade do Minho, Braga, PORTUGAL)Jos A. Jimnez

(Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya,Barcelona, ESPANHA)

Lus Cancela da Fonseca(Universidade do Algarve, Faro, PORTUGAL)

Mnica Costa(Universidade Federal de Pernambuco,

Recife, PE, BRASIL)Paolo Ciavola

(Universit di Ferrara, Ferrara, ITLIA)Ramon Gonzalez

(Universitt Basel, Basel, SUIA)Walter M. Widmer

(Universidade Federal do Paran,Matinhos, PA, BRASIL)

Alexandre Schiavetti(Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz,

Ilhus, BA, BRASIL)Antonio Klein

(Universidade do Vale do Itaja,Itaja, SC, BRASIL)

Fernando Veloso Gomes(Universidade do Porto,

Porto, PORTUGAL)Ildeberto Mota-Oliveira

(Instituto Superior Tcnico, Lisboa, PORTUGAL)Jos Antunes do Carmo(Universidade de Coimbra,Coimbra, PORTUGAL)Manuel Afonso-Dias

(Universidade do Algarve,Faro, PORTUGAL)Moyses G. Tessler

(Universidade de So Paulo,So Paulo, SP, BRASIL)

Paulo Freire Vieira(Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina,

Florianpolis, SC, BRASIL)Slvio Soares Macedo

(Universidade de So Paulo,So Paulo, SP, BRASIL)

www.aprh.pt/rgciwww.gci.inf.brCorpomailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]

www.aprh.pt/rgciwww.gci.inf.br

Avaliadores / Referees(Janeiro 2010 - Setembro 2010)

Revista da Gesto Costeira Integrada 10(3) (2010)Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 10(3) (2010)

Alexander TurraUniversidade de So Paulo

So Paulo, SP, BRASILAlexandre Schiavetti

Universidade Estadual de Santa CruzIlhus, BA, BRASIL

Allan WilliamsUniversity of Wales

Swansea, UKAmilcar Carvalho Mendes

Museu Paraense Emlio GoeldiBelem, PA, BRASIL

Andr Bustorff FortunatoLaboratrio Nacional de Engenharia Civil

Lisboa, PORTUGALngela Spengler

Bourscheid Engenharia e Meio Ambiente S.A.Porto Alegre, RS, BRASIL

Barbara FranzUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASILBruno Miguel Vaz

Universidade Nova de LisboaLisboa, PORTUGAL

Carla Bernadete Madureira CruzUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASILCarlos Pereira da Silva

Universidade Nova de LisboaLisboa, PORTUGAL

Carlos ValeInstituto de Investigao das Pescas e do Mar

Lisboa, PORTUGALCharles Moore

Algalita Marine Research FoundationLong Beach, CA, USA

Claudio MahlerUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASILDavid Tudor

Bath Spa University CollegeBath,UNITED KINGDOM

Davide FrancoUniversidade Federal de Santa Catarina

Florianopolis, SC, BRASILDebora Peterson

Universidade Federal de Santa CatarinaFlorianpolis, SC, BRASIL

Dieter MueheUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASILEdnilson Viana

Universidade de So PauloSo Paulo, SP, BRASIL

Eduardo Soriano-SierraUniversidade Federal de Santa Catarina

Florianpolis, SC, BRASILElrio E. Toldo Jr.

UniversidadeFederal do Rio Grande do SulPorto Alegre, RS, BRASIL

Ftima Lopes AlvesUniversidade de AveiroAveiro, PORTUGAL

Filipe de Oliveira ChavesUniversidade Federal do Esprito Santo

Vitria, ES, BRASIL

Francisco Barreto CaldasUniversidade do PortoPorto, PORTUGAL

Francisco C. R. de Barros JuniorUniversidade Federal da Bahia

Salvador, BA, BRASILFrancisco Taveira Pinto

Universidade do PortoPorto, PORTUGAL

Heiko BrunkenUniversity of Applied Sciences

Bremen, GERMANYHelena Granja

Universidade do MinhoBraga, PORTUGAL

Isaac SantosFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, FL, USA

Jder Onofre de MoraisUniversidade Estadual do Cear

Fortaleza, CE, BRASILJoo Luis Nicolodi

Universidade Federal do Rio GrandeRio Grande, RS, BRASIL

Joo Miguel DiasUniversidade de AveiroAveiro, PORTUGAL

Jos Antonio Baptista NetoUniversidade Federal Fluminense

Niteri, RJ, BRASILJos Antunes do CarmoUniversidade de CoimbraCoimbra, PORTUGAL

Jos Carlos CostaUniversidade Tcnica de Lisboa

Lisboa, PORTUGALJos Manuel Pereira Vieira

Universidade do MinhoGuimares, PORTUGALJos Maria de La Rosa

Instituto Tecnolgico e NuclearSacavm, PORTUGAL

Jose Maria Landim DominguezUniversidade Federal da Bahia

Salvador, BA, BRASILJuliana Sul

Universidade Federal de PernambucoRecife, PE, BRASIL

Ktia Naomi KuroshimaUniversidade do Vale do Itaja

Itaja, SC, BRASILLus Portela

Laboratrio Nacional de Enggenharia CivilLisboa, PORTUGAL

Marco AlvesWave Energy Centre (WavEC)

Lisboa, PortugalMarcus Polette

Universidade do Vale do ItajaItaja, SC, BRASIL

Maria da Conceio FreitasUniversidade de LisboaLisboa, PORTUGAL

Maria de Ftima ArajoInstituto Tecnolgico e Nuclear

Sacavm, PORTUGAL

Mariana Coutinho HennemannUniversidade Federal de Santa Catarina

Florianpolis, SC, BRASILMarinez Eymael Garcia Scherer

Programa Bandeira AzulFlorianpolis, SC, BRASIL

Mrio Gomes SoaresUniversidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASILMartin Thiel

Universidad Catolica del NorteCoquimbo, CHILEMary J. Donohue

University of HawaiiHonolulu, USA

Michel Michaelovitch de MahiquesUniversidade de So Paulo

So Paulo, SP, BRASILMilton L. Asmus

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do SulCarreiros, RS, BRASIL

Mnica Ferreira da CostaUniversidade Federal de Pernambuco

Recife, PE, BRASILMnica Maria Pereira Tognella

Universidade Federal do Esprito SantoSo Mateus, ES, BRASIL

Moyss Gonzalez TesslerUniversidade de So Paulo

So Paulo, SP, BRASILNatalia Hanazaki


Nelson GruberUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul

Porto Alegre, RS, BRASILNorberto Olmiro Horn


Pedro Proena CunhaUniversidade de CoimbraCoimbra, PORTUGAL

Pedro Walfir Martins e Souza FilhoUniversidade Federal do Par

Belm, PA, BRASILRichard Thompson

University of PlymouthPlymouth, UNITED KINGDOM

Ruy Kenji Papa de KikuchiUniversidade Federal da Bahia

Salvador, BA, BRASILSrgio Ricardo da Silveira Barros


Tomasz BoskiUniversidade do Algarve

Faro, PORTUGALWagner Costa Ribeiro


Walter M. WidmerInstituto Federal de Educao, Cincia e Tecnologia

de Santa CatarinaSC, BRASIL


Outros Avaliadores / Other Referees(2007 - 2009)

Adlio SilvaHidromod

Lisboa, PORTUGALAdriano A. Bordalo

Universidade do Porto - Instituto de CinciasBiomdicas de Abel Salazar

Porto, PORTUGALAlexandre Mazzer

Universidade da Regio de JoinvilleJoinville, SC, BRASILAna Vila-Concejo

University of SydneySydney, AUSTRLIA

Antnio Carlos DieguesUniversidade de So Paulo

So Paulo, SP, BRASILAntonio Klein


Antnio Manuel da Silva LusUniversidade de AveiroAveiro, PORTUGAL

Carlos Alberto Cioce SampaioUniversidade Regional de Blumenau

Blumenau, SC, BRASILCarlos Roberto Soares

Universidade Federal do ParanPontal do Paran, PR, BRASIL

Clovis B. CastroUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASILCristina Maria de Almeida Bernardes

Universidade de AveiroAveiro, PORTUGAL

Elmo Rodrigues da SilvaUniversidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASILEmanuel Gonalves

Instituto Superior de Psicologia AplicadaLisboa, PORTUGAL

Fernando Pereira de SousaCEPESE

Centro de Estudos da Populao, Economia eSociedade

Porto, PORTUGALFernando Perna

Universidade do AlgarveFaro, PORTUGAL

Fernando Veloso GomesUniversidade do PortoPorto, PORTUGALFrderic Bertrand

Universit de Paris 1 SorbonneParis, FRANA

Galopim de CarvalhoUniversidade de LisboaLisboa, PORTUGALHelena de Freitas

Universidade de CoimbraCoimbra, PORTUGAL

Ildeberto Mota-OliveiraInstituto Superior Tcnico

Lisboa, PORTUGALJoo Alveirinho Dias

CIMAFaro, PORTUGAL

Joo Carlos MarquesUniversidade de CoimbraCoimbra, PORTUGAL

Joo Thadeu de MenezesUniversidade do Vale do Itaja

Itaja, SC, BRASILJoo Wagner Alencar de Castro

Universidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroRio de Janeiro, BRASIL

Jos A. JimnezUniversitat Politcnica de Catalunya

Barcelona, ESPANHAJos Ribeiro

Universidade AbertaPorto, PORTUGAL

Karim ErziniUniversidade do Algarve

Faro, PORTUGALLauro J. Calliari

Universidade Federal do Rio GrandeCarreiros, RS, BRASIL

Luci Cajueiro Carneiro PereiraUniversidade Federal do Par

Belm, PA, BRASILLuciano Lorenzi

Universidade da Regio de JoinvilleSo Francisco do Sul, SC, BRASIL

Lus Cancela da FonsecaUniversidade do Algarve

Faro, PORTUGALManuel Afonso-Dias


Manuel Sousa Neves PereiraUniversidade do Algarve

Faro, PORTUGALMarcelo Sperle Dias

Universidade do Estado do Rio de JaneiroRio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASIL

Maria Ana Peixe DiasUniversidade de LisboaLisboa, PORTUGAL

Maria do Rosrio BastosUniversidade AbertaPorto, PORTUGAL

Maria Jesus Irabien GuliasEuskal Herriko Unibertsitatea

Bilbao, ESPANHAMaria Jos Costa

Universidade de LisboaLisboa, PORTUGAL

Maria Ozila Bezerra MenezesUniversidade Federal do Par

Belm, PA, BRASIL

Maria Teresa DinisUniversidade do Algarve

Faro, PORTUGALMoacyr Arajo

Universidade Federal de PernambucoRecife, PE, BRASIL

Nana Pierri EstadesUniversidade Federal do Paran

Curitiba, PR, BRASILscar Ferreira


Paolo CiavolaUniversit di Ferrara

Ferrara, ITLIAPaulo Avilez ValenteUniversidade do PortoPorto, PORTUGAL

Paulo CatryInstituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada

Lisboa, PORTUGALPaulo da Cunha Lana

Universidade Federal do ParanPontal do Paran, PR, BRASIL

Paulo Jorge Parreira dos SantosUniversidade Federal do Pernambuco

Recife, PE, BRASILPaulo Pereira


Paulo Renato Baganha BaptistaCESAM

Aveiro, PORTUGALPaulo Roberto Tagliani

Universidade Federal do Rio GrandeRio Grande, RS, BRASIL

Philip Conrad ScottUniversidade Santa rsulaRio de Janeiro, RJ, BRASIL

Rainer WehrhahnUniversidade de KielKiel, ALEMANHARamon GonzalezUniversitt Basel

Basel, SUARicardo Melo

Universidade de LisboaLisboa, PORTUGALRosemeri Marenzi


Rui TabordaUniversidade de LisboaLisboa, PORTUGAL

Slvio Soares MacedoUniversidade de So Paulo

So Paulo, SP, BRASILUlisses Miranda Azeiteiro



Breves consideraes sobre as ilhas e a sua gesto.Brief remarks on the islands and its management

Integrated Coastal Zone Management in small islands: A comparative outlineof some islands of the Lesser AntillesGesto integrada da zona costeira em pequenas ilhas: Uma abordagem comparativa dealgumas ilhas das Pequenas Antilhas

Ilhas ocenicas brasileiras: biodiversidade conhecida e sua relao com ohistrico de uso e ocupao humanaBrazilian oceanic islands: known biodiversity and its relation to the history of human useand occupation

Ilhas ocenicas da Trindade e Fernando de Noronha, Brasil: Uma viso daGeologia AmbientalOceanic islands of Trindade and Fernando de Noronha, Brazil: Overview of theEnvironmental Geology

Processo de deciso de Anlise Espacial na seleco de reas ptimas para aAquacultura Marinha: O exemplo da Ilha da MadeiraSpatial decision Analysis Process for selection Marine Aquaculture suitable zones: Theexemple of Madeira Island

Mapeamento Geomorfolgico e Morfodinmica do Atol das Rocas, AtlnticoSulGeomorphological Mapping and Morphodynamic of Rocas atoll, South Atlantic

Gesto ambiental de ecossistemas insulares: O caso da reserva biolgica doatol das Rocas, Atlntico Sul EquatorialEnvironmental management of insular ecosystems: The case of atol das Rocas biologicalreserve, Equatorial South Atlantic

Variaes morfolgicas no prisma praial da Ilha Comprida (Sudeste do Brasil)- Subsdios para uma Gesto Costeira SustentvelMorphologic changes on the beach of Ilha Comprida (southeast Brazilian coast) subsidesto the coastal management

Estudo da contaminao por resduos slidos na ilha do Arvoredo, reservabiolgica marinha do Arvoredo - SC, BrasilStudy of the contamination of litter in island Arvoredo, marine biological reserve of theArvoredo - SC, Brasil

ndice / IndexPrefcio

J. Alveirinho DiasJ. Antunes do CarmoMarcus Polette

Artigos / Papers

Pascal SaffachePierre Angelelli

Thiago Zagonel SerafiniGeorgeana Barbosa de FranaJos Milton Andriguetto-Filho

Joo Wagner Alencar Castro

Cludio TorresCarlos Andrade

N.S. PereiraV.A.V. MansoA.M.C. SilvaM.B. Silva

Marcelo de Oliveira SoaresCarolina Cerqueira de PaivaThas de GodoyMaurizlia de Brito SilvaCarla Soraia Soares de Castro

Mainara da Rocha Karniol MarquezMichel Michaelovitch de Mahiques

Arthur Antnio MachadoGilberto Fillmann

Revista da Gesto Costeira Integrada 10(3) (2010)Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 10(3) (2010)

243

255

281

303

321

331

347

361

381



As ilhas podem ser classificadas como territrioscontinentais ou ocenicas. Em qualquer dos casos so,em geral, meios confinados (por vezes mais, outrasvezes menos) do ponto de vista geogrfico e humano.As acessibilidades so, com frequncia, difceis. Porvezes, devido a estas caractersticas (embora sejam deconsiderar outros factores intervenientes), propiciaramo desenvolvimento de meios sociais especficos, noraro com culturas muito vincadas, ricas, genunas e,por vezes, exticas, as quais constituem importantepatrimnio imaterial que urge registar e, se possvel,preservar e conservar.

Ao longo dos tempos, o confinamento humano,bem como as deficientes acessibilidades, tornaramdifcil o conhecimento do que eram, na realidade, asilhas (principalmente as ocenicas), bem como do quea se passava. Utilizando a terminologiacontempornea, pode dizer-se que as ilhas eram, econtinuam a ser em grande parte dos casos) pequenosterritrios perifricos ou ultra-perifricos. At aosculo XX j avanado, a populao, em geral, dispunhade exguos tempos livres e os meios de comunicaoeram ainda rudimentares e bastante dispendiososcomparativamente aos actuais, pelo que a visita s ilhasestava reservada a apenas alguns privilegiados (e apequeno nmero tambm de privilegiados que se

Islands can be classified as continental and oceanic.In general, they are more or less confined places underthe geographic and human point of view.Accessibilities are often difficult. Although otherfactors are involved, due to these characteristics theypropitiated the development of specific social aspects.Not rarely those confined societies have very marked,rich, genuine and, at times, exotic cultures, thatconstitute an important intangible heritage that isurgent to register and, if possible, to preserve and toconserve.

Over time, human confinement, as well as thedeficient accessibilities have made difficult to knowwhat the islands really were (especially the oceanicislands), as well as what was happening in there. Usingcontemporary terminology, one can say that islandswere (and still are in most cases), peripheral or ultra-peripheral small territories. Up to the already advanced20th century, population, in general, had little leisureand the communications were still rudimentary andquite expensive compared to the current ones. So, thevisit to the islands was reserved to a few privilegedpersons (and also to a small number of privilegedsaved from shipwrecks, being able to reach any lostisland). This has contributed, frequently, to theconstruction, in the social imaginary, of legends,

Prefcio / Preface

Breves consideraes sobre as ilhas e a sua gesto

Brief remarks on the islands and its management 1

Revista da Gesto Costeira Integrada 10(3):243-253 (2010)Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 10(3):243-253 (2010)

1 - Traduo por Maria Manuela Baptista.


Dias, Carmo e PoletteRevista de Gesto Costeira Integrada / Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 10(3):243-253 (2010)

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salvavam de naufrgios conseguindo atingir qualquerilha perdida). Isto contribuiu, com frequncia, para aconstruo, no imaginrio social, de lendas, tradiese contos que referiam a existncia, nalgumas dessasilhas, de pequenas sociedades idlicas onde o pecadooriginal (ou pelo menos o do dinheiro ou o dasconvenes sociais restritivas) ainda no tinha chegado.Paralelamente ao desenvolvimento destas ideias desociedades utpicas, outras surgiram em que as ilhas,pelas suas caractersticas, eram assimiladas a locaispropcios a certa purificao e redeno e, por vezes,at a aproximaes ao Paraso.

Exemplo do que se referiu clebre romanceRobinson Cruso (1719), de Daniel Defoe (1660-1731),onde ressalta a Ilha do Desespero como meio dopersonagem se encontrar consigo prprio, com aNatureza e com Deus. Outro exemplo, na sequnciado que foi referido, a A Famlia Robinson Sua (1812),do suo Johann David Wyss (1743-1818), em que afamlia se adapta de tal forma aos valores naturais (e aeles prprios) que, quando so salvos, apenas doiselementos jovens regressam civilizao, decidindoo resto da famlia continuar a viver na harmonia dailha. Estes so apenas dois entre milhares de exemplospossveis.

Imaginao frtil dos autores? Isso indubitvel.Todavia, produto tambm do imaginrio popular que,com frequncia, assimilam ilhas a locais idlicos.Recordemos as palavras do escritor e historiadorportugus Jaime Corteso (1884-1960) a propsito dasua obra O Romance das Ilhas Encantadas (1925),relacionado com as descobertas das ilhas da Madeira edos Aores: Este romance que ides ler..., no julgueis que deponta a ponta o inventei, para depois vo-lo contar. Ele anda escrito,pedao aqui, pedao alm, por velhos livros onde se recordam histriascontadas pelo povo nas idades antigas. Por mim, pouco mais fiz doque juntar as folhas espalhadas e esquecidas dessa linda histria,sacudir-lhes o p e uni-las de seguida com o mesmo fio.

Talvez tenha sido toda esta tradio e todo esteimaginrio que levou Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) alocalizar precisamente numa ilha (a Ilha de Pala) o seultimo romance, intitulado simplesmente A Ilha (1962),em que descreve uma sociedade ideal e idealizada, emque o Homem vive harmoniosamente consigo prprio ecom a Natureza.

Locais de punio e de salvao, de morte e derenascimento, de destruio e de criao, de iluso e dedesiluso, as ilhas so tudo isso e muito mais. So como

traditions and tales that referred the existence, in someof those islands, of small idyllic societies where theoriginal sin (or, at least, the sin concerning money orrestrictive social conventions) had not yet reached. Inparallel with the development of these ideas of utopiansocieties, other ideas have emerged in which the islands,due to its characteristics, were assimilated to propitiousplaces for a certain personal purification andredemption and, sometimes, approaches to Paradise.

One example of what was referred is the famousnovel Robinson Cruso (1719), from Daniel Defoe(1660-1731), where the Island of Dispair is highlightedas a means for the character to find himself, to findNature and to find God. Another example, is TheSwiss Family Robinson (1812), from the Swiss JohannDavid Wyss (1743-1818), where the family adapts somuch to the natural values and to themselves that atthe end, when they are saved, only two young membersof the family return to civilization, deciding the restof the family to continue to living in the harmony ofthe island. These are only two among thousands ofpossible examples.

Fertile imagination of the authors? That isunquestionable. However, it is also the product of thepopular imaginary that, often, assimilates islands toidyllic places. Let us remind the words of thePortuguese writer and historian Jaime Corteso (1884-1960) regarding his book O Romance das IlhasEncantadas (The Novel of the Enchanted Islands)(1925), related to the discovery of Madeira and Azoresislands: This novel you are about to read, do not thinkthat I invented it from beginning to end, and then narrate it toyou. It is written, one piece here, another piece there, in oldbooks where stories are remembered and told by the people inancient times. I did little more than join the spread and forgottenpieces of that beautiful story, dust and merge them with thesame wire or thread.

Perhaps it was all this tradition and all this imaginarythat led Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) to precisely locatein one island (Island of Pala) his last novel, simplytitled Island (1962), in which he describes an idealand idealized society, in which Man lives in harmonywith himself and with Nature.

Places of punishment and salvation, of death andrebirth, of destruction and creation, of illusion anddisillusion, the islands are all that and much more. Theyare like any other place, with existence independent


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qualquer outro lugar, com existncia independente dossentimentos, dos valores imateriais e do imaginriohumanos, mas em que o difcil acesso provocou odesconhecimento da realidade factual e suscitou a criaode mitos e lendas, frequentemente promovidas ealimentadas pela intelectualidade privilegiada que asvisitava e/ou sobre elas discorria.

E na criao deste imaginrio relevante referir opintor Paul Gauguin (1848-1903), que nas ilhas (Taiti,Martinica, Marquesas, etc.) procurou redeno einspirao. Os seus quadros, grande parte deles carregadosda iconografia extica das ilhas, em que sobressaem ascores intensas, principalmente vermelhos, amarelos,verdes e violetas, tm grande atractividade e seguramentecontriburam para reforar uma certa imagem idlica dasilhas (fig. 1 e 2).

Mas, sendo to idealizadas, amadas e at odiadas, oque concretamente uma ilha?

from the feelings, from immaterial values and fromhuman imaginary; but in which the difficult accesscaused the lack of factual reality and raised up thecreation of myths and legends, often promoted andnourished by the privileged intellectuals who visitedthem and/or discoursing on them.

And in the creation of this imaginary it is relevantto mention the painter Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) who,in the islands (Tahiti, Martinica, Marquises, etc.)searched for redemption and inspiration. His paintings,most of them filled with the exotic iconography ofthe islands, enhanced by the intense colors, mainlybright reds, yellows, greens and purples, are verypleasant and certainly helped to reinforce a certainidyllic image of the islands (fig. 1 e 2).

But being so idealized, loved and even hated, whatis specifically an island?

Figura 1 - Mahana no atua (Day of God), de Paul Gauguin (1894).Figure 1 Mahana no atua (Day of God), by Paul Gauguin (1894).

Figura 2 - Duas taitianas com flores demanga, de Paul Gauguin (1899).Figure 2 - Two Tahitian Women with Mango Blos-soms, by Paul Gauguin (1899).


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Tal como vem nos dicionrios, ilha uma poro deterra emersa rodeada de gua. Definio simples e clara,que converge com a que apresentada no n 1 do artigo121 da Conveno do Mar 2, onde se refere que uma ilha uma formao natural de terra, rodeada de gua, que fica adescoberto na preia-mar. Porm, na pormenorizao, taisdefinies revelam-se mais complexas e, em vriosaspectos, mais imprecisas do que pode parecer numaprimeira leitura. Por exemplo, qual a diferena precisaentre ilha, ilhu, ilhota, rochedo, escolho e vrios outrostermos vulgarmente utilizados? A partir de que rea sedeve considerar que uma poro de terra emersa rodeadade gua efectivamente uma ilha? Como se ver emseguida, o assunto no despiciendo.

A relevncia e importncia das ilhas explicitamente reconhecida pela Conveno do Marou, de forma completa, pela Conveno das NaesUnidas sobre o Direito do Mar, celebrada em 10 deDezembro de 1982 em Montego Bay, na Jamaica, eratificada por Portugal em 1997 e pelo Brasil em 1998.Para aferir dessa importncia interessante referir quea palavra ilha utilizada 45 vezes ao longo das 61pginas do texto, enquanto a palavra continente apenas usada duas vezes.

A diferena entre ilha e rochedo (e por deduoilhota, escolho e congneres) implicitamenteestabelecida pela Conveno quando, no n 3 do art.121 se estipula que os rochedos que, por si prprios, no seprestam habitao humana ou vida econmica no devemter zona econmica exclusiva nem plataforma continental.Consequentemente, utilizando a doutrina daConveno, pode dizer-se que ilha uma poro deterra emersa rodeada de gua, que se preste habitaohumana ou vida econmica. Tal no impe limitesexplcitos referentes rea emersa, embora se concluaque as ilhas devem ter uma rea mnima adequada habitao humana ou vida econmica, o que no resolvea indefinio.

Quanto rea mxima no conhecemos qualquerdocumentao que a refira. Que a Islndia, apesar deter cerca de 100000 km de rea emersa, uma ilhaparece ser inquestionvel. E a Gronelndia com mais

In the dictionaries, island is an emergent portionof land surrounded by water. Definition simple andclear, that converges with that presented in no. 1 ofarticle 121 of the Convention on the Law of the Sea1,which states that an island is a naturally formed area ofland, surrounded by water, which is exposed during the hightide. However, in detail, such definitions are morecomplex and, in many aspects, more inaccurate thatmight appear in a first reading. For instance, what isthe precise difference between island, islet, rock, reefand several other commonly used terms? From whichamount of area must an emergent portion of landsurrounded by water be considered as effectively anisland? As we will see, the issue is not insignificant.

The relevance and importance of the island isexplicitly recognized by the Convention of the Sea,or, in its full form, by the United Nations Conventionon the Law of the Sea, celebrated in 10th December1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica, and ratified by Portugalin 1997 and Brazil in 1998. In order to assess thisimportance, it is interesting to refer that the wordisland is used 45 times throughout the 61 pages ofthe text, while the word continent is used only twice.

The difference between island and rock (andby deduction islet, reef and related) is implicitlyestablished by the Convention when, in no. 3 of article121 it states that Rocks which cannot sustain humanhabitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusiveeconomic zone or continental shelf. Consequently, usingthe doctrine of the Convention, one can say that islandis a portion of land surrounded by water suitable forhuman habitation or for economic life. This does notimpose explicit limits concerning the area, though onecan conclude that islands must have a minimum areasuitable for human habitation or economic life, which doesnot solve the ambiguity.

Concerning the maximum area we do not knowany document that refers to it. That Iceland is an island,despite having around 100000 km of above waterarea, seems to be unquestionable. And Greenland withmore than 2 million km is still an island? For mostauthors the answer is yes. And Australia with more

2 - Utiliza-se aqui o texto da Conveno das Naes Unidas sobre o Direito do Mar na verso portuguesa, publicada no Dirio daRepblica, n 238/97, de 14 de Outubro de 1997, Suplemento, p. 5486-(96) - 5486-(157), Lisboa, Portugal.1 Here it is used the text from the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in its Portuguese version, publishedin Dirio da Repblica, n 238/97, dated 14 October 1997, Supplement, p. 5486-(96) - 5486-(157), Lisbon, Portugal.


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de 2 milhes de km ainda uma ilha? Para a maioriados autores a resposta afirmativa. E a Austrlia (commais de 7,5 milhes de km de rea emersa)?Considera-se, em geral, que um continente (o menorcontinente terrestre). Ento, a partir de que dimensose deve considerar que uma poro de terra emersa rodeadade gua j no uma ilha, mas sim um continente?Esta mais uma indefinio candente ...

Na sociedade contempornea a importncia das ilhasfoi fortemente realada juridicamente (e por consequnciatambm sob os pontos de vista politico, econmico esocial) pela Conveno do Mar. Logo no n 1 do art. 7,ao estipular a linha a partir da qual se deve medir a largurada Zona Econmica Exclusiva (ZEE) e da PlataformaContinental no conceito jurdico (PC), diz-se que as ilhasao longo da costa na sua proximidade imediata podemser utilizadas no traado das linhas de base rectas. Talvem realar de forma inquestionvel a importncia dasilhas costeiras.

Mas o que veio relevar, talvez de modo mpar nahistria, a importncia das ilhas para os pases ribeirinhos,designadamente para Portugal e para o Brasil, foi o n 2do art. 121 da Conveno aludida, quando se estipulaque o mar territorial, a zona contgua, a zona econmica exclusivae a plataforma continental de uma ilha sero determinados deconformidade com as disposies da presente Conveno aplicveis aoutras formaes terrestres. As reas das ZEE e das PC dospases martimos com ilhas ocenicas era, assim,fortemente ampliada, com tudo o que isso significa emtermos de recursos marinhos actuais ou potenciais (pescas,recursos minerais, etc.). De acordo com o artigo referido,as ilhas passavam a deter ZEE e PC de 200 milhas (casono houvesse situao conflitual com outro pas), quepoderia mesmo, em certas condies, alargar-se at s350 milhas.

Com a conveno do Mar Portugal continental, com89 015km de rea emersa, alargou a sua jurisdio auma rea de 327 667 km. Porm, beneficiando dosarquiplagos da Madeira e dos Aores, respectivamentecom reas emersas de 801 km e 2 346 km, a ZEEportuguesa total expande-se para os 1 727 408 km (fig.3),ou seja, cerca de 1,6% da rea do Oceano Atlntico ecerca de 1,25% de toda a rea ocenica sob jurisdio depases. Principalmente devido s ilhas portuguesas, a ZEEde Portugal a maior na Europa (embora no seja a maiorda Europa porquanto, devido aos territrios ultramarinos,as ZZE francesa, com mais de 11 milhes de km, e doReino Unido, com quase 4 milhes de km, so claramentemaiores).

than 7,5 million km of above water area? In general,it is considered as a continent (the smallest continent).So, from which dimension shall an above water at hightide naturally formed portion of land surrounded by water beconsidered not as an island anymore, but as acontinent? This is another glowing ambiguity ...

In contemporary society, the importance of the islandswas legally strongly enhanced (and as a consequence alsounder the political, economical and social points of view)by the Convention on the Law of the Sea. In no. 1 of thearticle 7, when stipulates the baseline for measuring thebreadth of the territorial sea and consequently the widthof the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and theContinental Shelf in the legal concept (CS), it is said thatthe islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity themethod of straight baselines joining appropriate pointsmay be employed. This underlines the unquestionableimportance of coastal islands.

But what relieved, perhaps in a unique way in history,the importance of the islands for riparian countries,namely Portugal and Brazil, was no. 2 of the art. 121 ofthe aforesaid Convention, when it states that the territorialsea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone and thecontinental shelf of an island will be determined in accordance withthe provisions of this Convention applicable to other land territory.The area of the EEZ and CS of the maritime countrieswith oceanic islands was, thus, greatly expanded, with allwhich that means in terms of present or potential marineresources (fisheries, mineral resources, etc.). Accordingto the referred article, the islands would hold EEZ andCS of 200 miles (if there are no conflict situation withanother country), which could even, under certainconditions, extend up to 350 miles.

With the convention on the Law of the Sea, mainlandPortugal, with an emerged area of 89,015 km, extendedits jurisdiction to an area of 327,667 km. However,benefiting from Madeira and Azores archipelagos,emerged areas respectively with 801 km and 2,346 km,the total Portuguese EEZ extends up to 1,727,408 km(Fig. 3), i.e. about 1.6 % area of the Atlantic Ocean andapproximately 1.25% of the entire oceanic area undercountries jurisdiction. Mainly due to the Portugueseislands, EEZ of Portugal is the largest in Europe(although not the largest from Europe since, due to theoverseas territories, French EEZ, with more than 11million square kilometers, and the United Kingdom, withnearly 4 million square kilometers, are clearly larger).


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Se Portugal tiver sucesso nas pretenses dealargamento dessa rea, a superfcie sob jurisdionacional ser ampliada para os 3027408km, ou seja,estender-se- por uma rea 32,8 vezes maior que atotalidade do territrio emerso, 2,9% da rea doOceano Atlntico e mais de 2% de toda a rea ocenicasob jurisdio de pases, ou seja, provavelmente a 10maior ZEE do mundo, logo a seguir do Brasil.

Tambm o Brasil viu a sua rea jurisdicionalbastante ampliada com a aplicao da Conveno doMar. Com rea emersa de 8 514 877km2, devido silhas dos arquiplagos de Trindade e Martim Vaz, deFernando de Noronha, de So Pedro e So Paulo e doAtol das Rocas, a ZEE brasileira, estende-se por umarea de 3660955km (fig. 4), correspondente a quase3,5% do Oceano Atlntico e mais de 2,6% de toda area ocenica sob jurisdio de pases. Se as

If Portugal succeeds in the claiming to theenlargement of this area, the territory under nationaljurisdiction will be expanded to 3,027,408 km, i.e., willextend over an area 32.8 times greater than the wholeemerged territory, 2.9% of the Atlantic Ocean and morethan 2% of the entire ocean area under the jurisdictionof countries, i.e., probably the 10th largest EEZ in theworld, after Brazil.

Brazil also saw its jurisdictional area greatly expandedwith the implementation of the Convention on the Lawof the Sea. With an emerged area of 8,514,877 km2, dueto the archipelagos of Trindade and Martim Vaz,Fernando de Noronha, So Pedro and So Paulo and theAtoll of Rocas, the Brazilian EEZ, extends over an areaof 3,660,955 km (Fig. 4), corresponding to almost 3.5%of the Atlantic Ocean and more than 2.6% of the entireocean area under the jurisdiction of countries. If the

Figura 3 - Zona Econmica Exclusiva / Plataforma Continental de Portugal. A azul claro a zonainicialmente definida pela Conveno do Mar; a roxo a em reclamao.Figure 3 Economic Exclusive Zone / Continental Shelf (legal concept ) of Portugal. Light blue color is the zone initiallydefined applying the Convention on the Law of the Sea; purple color corresponds to claiming zone.


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Figura 4 - Zona Econmica Exclusiva / Plataforma Continental do Brasil. A azul claro a zona inicialmentedefinida pela Conveno do Mar; a roxo a zona reclamada; a vermelho a zona cujo processo est em tramitao.Figure 4 - Exclusive Economic Zone / Brazil Continental Shelf. Light blue color is the zone initially defined by the Conventionon the Law of the Sea; purple color the claimed zone; red color the zone which process is in progress.


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reivindicaes brasileiras perante a Comisso deLimites das Naes Unidas forem bem sucedidas, area aludida poder ser ampliada para 4,4 milhes dekm (mais de 4,1% do Oceano Atlntico e cerca de3,2% da rea ocenica sob jurisdio de pases).

Torna-se, assim, evidente a enorme importncia queas ilhas ocenicas tm para os pases ribeirinhos,designadamente para Portugal e para o Brasil. Podemesmo afirmar-se que nunca as ilhas ocenicas foramto valorizadas como aps a Conveno do Mar.

Neste contexto, os casos de Cabo Verde e de SoTom e Prncipe so paradigmticos. Com um territrioemersa com 4 033 km2, a ZEE / PC de Cabo Verdeestende-se por 796 840 km2 (fig. 5), ou seja, uma reaquase 20 000 vezes maior que a emersa. Tambm SoTom e Prncipe, cuja territrio emerso tem apenas 1000 km2, alargou a sua rea jurisdicional em 131 397 km2,mais de 13 000 vezes maior que a rea emersa.

Brazilian claims before the Commission on the Limitsof the United Nations are successful, the alluded areamay be expanded to 4.4 million km (more than 4.1% ofthe Atlantic Ocean and about 3.2% of ocean area underjurisdiction of countries.

It is thus evident the enormous importance thatoceanic islands have for the riparian countries, namelyPortugal and Brazil. One can even say that oceanic islandshave never been so valued as after the Convention on theLaw of the Sea.

In this context the cases of Cape Verde and So Tomand Principe are quite exemplificative. With an emergedarea of 4 033 km2, Cape Verde EEZ / CS extends overan area of 796 840 km2 (fig.5), that is almost 20 000 timeslarger than the above water territory. Also So Tom andPrincipe, which emerged area is 1 000 Km2, enlarged 131397 km2 to its jurisdictional territory (more than 13 000times larger than the emerged area).

Figura 5 - Zona Econmica Exclusiva / Plataforma Continental de Cabo Verde. A azul claro a zona definidapela Conveno do Mar.Figure 5 - Exclusive Economic Zone / Brazil Continental Shelf (legal concept ) of Cape Verde. Light blue color are thezones initially defined applying the Convention on the Law of the Sea.


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In a different (non oceanic) context, Guin-Bissaushould also be referred. With an emerged territory of36 125 km2, with the its jurisdictional area was enlargedby 123 725 km2, in great part due to the BijagsArchipelago.

Partially due to the islands, the eight officiallyPortuguese speaking countries (Angola, Brazil, CapeVerde, East Timor, Guin-Bissau, Mozambique,Portugal and So Tom and Principe) have a joint EEZ/ CS totalizing 7,611,791 km2, that is more than 5.4%of the entire ocean area under the jurisdiction ofcountries.

However, the importance of the islands transcendsthat of the oceanic islands. Coastal islands, whetherthey are rocky or sandy, are also of great economic,social, political and geostrategic relevance. Often theyhave, as a supplement, a very important role in coastalprotection, as by inhibiting the ocean waves fromdirectly reaching the continental coast, they eliminateor strongly slow down coastal erosion on these littorals.There are many examples of that, and one canexemplify with the islands of Ria Formosa, in Portugal(barrier islands that slowed down the big tsunami of1755, preventing the adjacent continental territoryfrom being so struck and destroyed as the one locatedWest) or Ilha Comprida, in So Paulo, Brazil (thatprotects the cities of Iguape and Canania from theAtlantic sea waves).

Diversity of topics related to the islands is huge,making its simple mention incompatible with a text likethis, intended to be relatively brief. However, we believewe must emphasize the key role of coastal islands in littoralphysiography, namely in the definition of lagoonenvironments and formation of tombolos.

And one could still refer to the deltaic or fluvial-marineislands, which can be exemplified by the nearly 2,500islands and islets of the archipelago of Maraj, in thestate of Par, Brazil, at the mouth of the Amazon River,which includes the largest fluvio-marine island of theworld (the island of Maraj, with about 40 100 km), orto the 88 islands in the Archipelago of Bijags in thedelta of river Geba, in Guinea-Bissau (with total areaexceeding 2 600 km2).

And it would be also possible to reason about thefluvial islands, with the Island of Bananal as an example.Defined by the Araguaia and Javas rivers, it is located inthe Brazilian state of Tocantins. With an area of about20 000 km has the particularity of being the largest islandof this kind on Earth.

Num contexto algo diferente (no propriamenteocenico), tambm o caso da Guin-Bissau deve serreferido. Com um territrio emerso com 36 125 km2, asua rea jurisdicional foi alargada em 123 725 km2, emgrande parte devido ao arquiplago dos Bijags.

Em grande parte devido ao estatuto das ilhas, os oitopases cuja lngua oficial o portugus (Angola, Brasil,Cabo Verde, Guin-Bissau, Moambique, Portugal, SoTom e Prncipe e Timor Leste) so conjuntamentedetentores de ZEE / PC que totaliza 7 611 791 km2, ouseja, mais de 5,4% da rea total ocenica sob jurisdiode pases.

Porm, a importncia das ilhas transcende a das ilhasocenicas. As ilhas costeiras, sejam elas rochosas ouarenosas, so, tambm, de grande relevncia econmica,social, politica e geoestratgica. Com frequncia tm,suplementarmente, uma funo de grande relevncia naproteco costeira, pois que, ao inibirem as ondasocenicas de atingirem directamente territrio continental,eliminam ou amortecem fortemente a eroso costeiranesses litorais. Exemplos do que se referiu no faltam,podendo-se exemplificar com as ilhas da Ria Formosa,em Portugal (ilhas barreira que inclusivamenteamorteceram o grande tsunami de 1755, evitando que oterritrio continental adjacente fosse to atingido edestrudo como o que se localiza a ocidente), ou com aIlha Comprida, em So Paulo, Brasil (que protege ascidades de Iguape e de Canania da agitao martimaatlntica).

A diversidade de temas relacionados com as ilhas imensa, tornando-se a sua simples meno incompatvelcom um texto como este, que se pretende relativamentesucinto. Todavia, cremos ser de sublinhar o papeldeterminante das ilhas costeiras na fisiografia litoral,designadamente na definio de ambientes lagunares ena formao de tmbolos.

E poder-se-iam referir, ainda, as ilhas delticas ouflvio-marinhas, que se podem exemplificar com as cercade 2 500 ilhas e ilhotas do Arquiplago do Maraj, noestado do Par, Brasil, na foz do rio Amazonas, que incluia maior ilha fluvio-marinha do mundo (a Ilha do Maraj,com cerca de 40100km), ou com as 88 ilhas doArquiplago dos Bijags, no delta do rio Geba, na Guin-Bissau (com rea total superior a 2 600 km2).

E seria possvel, tambm, discorrer sobre as ilhasfluviais, de que exemplo a Ilha do Bananal, definidapelos rios Araguaia e Javas, localizada no estado brasileirodo Tocantins, com rea de cerca de 20 000 km2, e quetem a particularidade de ser a maior ilha deste tipo naTerra.


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Sejam de que tipo forem, as ilhas tm, por via deregra, grande valor ambiental, estando por isso, emmuitos casos, abrangidas por diversificados estatutosde proteco ambiental: reas de Paisagem Protegida,reas de Proteco Ambiental, Reservas Naturais,Reservas integrais, Reservas da Biosfera do Planeta,Reservas Biolgicas Marinhas, etc., etc. Tal torna a suagesto particularmente delicada e difcil.

Quando arenosas, as ilhas so sujeitas a umamorfodinmica muito intensa, tornando-se, no raro,imprprias para a ocupao humana permanente, emboraas actividades decorrentes do preenchimento dos temposlivres (como o turismo) disso no tenham frequentementeconscincia, teimando na edificao de estruturashabitacionais nesses lugares. Nesses casos, a gestocosteira torna-se ainda mais complexa.

Gerir o litoral sempre, quase por definio, gerirproblemas e conflitos. No caso das ilhas, esses conflitosadquirem, em geral, ainda maior relevncia, tornando agesto costeira insular particularmente complexa,dinmica e difcil.

Foi com o advento do turismo que as ilhas, em geral,comearam a ter realmente procura pelo cidado comum.Com a consolidao do turismo de massas a quantidadede visitantes cresceu at valores impensveis ainda hmenos de meio sculo. Muitas ilhas transformaram-seem produtos comerciais vendveis no mercado tursticocomo locais idlicos, por vezes, mesmo, utilizando-se paratal pinturas de Gauguin. Nalguns casos, os impactesinduzidos por tal presso ultrapassou a resilincia dosecossistemas. Noutros, foi necessrio impor fortssimasrestries ao nmero de visitantes para conseguir que osvalores naturais sejam salvaguardados.

Com o mundo tecnolgico contemporneo, as ilhasevoluram de locais confinados, mais ou menos isolados,com difceis acessibilidades, para locais abertos, altamentepermeveis ao exterior, que se tornaram fceis de visitar. verdade que a economia dessas ilhas foi assimfortemente dinamizada (embora os dividendos principais,em geral, no revertam para as populaes insulares). Mastambm factual que as presses exercidas sobre essesecossistemas aumentou para nveis que ultrapassam, porvezes, o da sua sustentabilidade, tal como factual que asculturas especficas, normalmente muito ricas, que aspopulaes desenvolveram ao longo de muitas geraesacabaram por se transmutar e, nalguns casos, por se perderirremediavelmente. As ilhas foram, em geral, plenamenteintegradas na sociedade contempornea, com tudo o que

Whatever kind they are, the islands have, as a rule,high environmental value and are therefore, in many cases,covered by diverse environmental protection statutes:Protected Landscape Areas, Areas of EnvironmentalProtection, Natural Reserves, Integral Reserves, BiosphereReserves of the Planet, Marine Biological Reserves,etc.. etc.. This makes their management particularlydelicate and difficult.

When islands are sandy, they are subject to a veryintense morphodynamic, becoming, not rarely,unsuitable for permanent human occupation, althoughthe activities related to leisure time (namely tourism)are not often aware of that, insisting in buildingresidential structures in those places. In such cases,the coastal management becomes even more complex.

Managing the littoral is always, almost by definition,managing problems and conflicts. In the case ofislands, these conflicts get, in general, even morerelevant, making the island coastal managementparticularly complex, dynamic and difficult.

It was with the advent of tourism that islands, ingeneral, began to have a real demand by the ordinarycitizens. With the consolidation of mass tourism, thenumber of visitors grew to amounts unthinkable lessthan half a century ago. Many islands have turned intocommercial products in the international market, beingsold to tourists idyllic places, sometimes even usingfor such purpose the paintings of Gauguin. In somecases, the impacts induced by such pressure exceededthe resilience of the ecosystems. In others, it wasnecessary to impose very strong restrictions on thenumber of visitors in order to safeguard the naturalvalues.

With the contemporary technological world, theislands have evolved from confined places, more orless isolated, with difficult accessibility, to open places,highly permeable to the exterior, which have becomeeasier to visit. It is true that the economy of thoseislands has been strongly energized (though the maindividends generally do not accrue to the islanders).But it is also factual that the pressure on theseecosystems has increased to levels beyond those that,sometimes, overcomes its sustainability. And it is alsofactual that specific cultures, usually very rich, thatpeople have developed over many generations, endedup to transmute and, in some cases, be lost forever. Ingeneral, islands are now fully integrated into thecontemporary society, with all the good and the bad


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isso tem de bom e de mau. Mas em termos de valores,tanto naturais, como culturais, o Homem ficou, quase decerteza, bastante mais pobre.

Em 1932 Aldous Huxley publicou o romance OAdmirvel Mundo Novo (1932), onde descreve umahipottica sociedade ultra-estruturada, alienada e alienante,obcecada pela procura de felicidade, mesmo que atingidapela via dos estupefacientes. um grito de alerta sobreos perigos criados pela sociedade contempornea, que setm vindo, de algum modo, a concretizar, pelo menosparcialmente. No seu ltimo romance, A Ilha (1962),Huxley faz um contraponto com a obra aludida,descrevendo um mundo perfeito, feliz e harmnico.Curiosamente, no final, o autor acaba por reconhecer quetal sociedade carece de viabilidade no nosso mundo real,mercantilizado e artificializado, em que a economiaculminou no consumo insacivel, incompatvel com afelicidade pessoal devido s necessidades hipotticascriadas por uma publicidade extremamente agressiva. Aidlica sociedade da ilha de Pala acaba por sucumbir devido contaminao de ideias vindas do exterior. Porm, oincio da destruio de Pala no vem do exterior: oprprio prncipe herdeiro quem atrai os estrangeiros parao ajudar no golpe militar destinado a colocar o pas, pelafora, na modernidade industrial e na esfera do petrleo.Mas no romance mesmo a derrota da utopia expressanum tom de exaltao: a sociedade idlica da Ilha de Palafoi destruda por ser boa demais para este mundo.

Em muitas ilhas (a generalidade das ilhas?), os valoresnaturais e culturais esto a ser destrudos perante aspresses e ideais provenientes do exterior. Mas,normalmente, so os prprios habitantes (herdeiros dosvalores a existentes) a atrair os estrangeiros paraviabilizarem o fcil acesso modernidade industrial. Serque A Ilha a ser conquistada pelo Admirvel MundoNovo ? Ser que as ilhas esto a ser destrudas por seremboas demais para este mundo?

issues this may bring. But in terms of values, bothnatural and cultural, Man became almost certainlypoorer.

In 1932 Aldous Huxley published the novel BraveNew World (1932), where he describes a hypotheticalsociety, ultra-structured, alienated and alienating,obsessed with the pursuit of happiness, even ifachieved by means of drugs. It is a wake-up call aboutthe dangers created by the contemporary society, whichhave been, somehow, materialized, at least partially. Inhis last novel, Island (1962), Huxley makes acounterpoint with the alluded work, describing aperfect happy and harmonious world. Curiously, inthe end, the author realizes that such society has alack of viability in our real, economized andartificialized world, in which the economy resulted inan insatiable wish for consumption and hypotheticalneeds created by extremely aggressive advertisingtechniques, incompatible with personal happiness. Theidyllic society of Island of Pala succumbs due tocontamination of ideas coming from the outside.However, the beginning of destruction of Pala doesnot come from the outside: it is the crown princehimself who attracts foreigners to help him in themilitary coup aimed to put the country, by force, inthe industrial modernity and in the sphere of thepetroleum. But in the novel, even the defeat of utopiais expressed in a tone of exaltation: the idyllic societyof Island of Pala was destroyed by being too good forthis world.

In many islands (most of the islands?), the naturaland cultural values are being destroyed by pressuresand ideas coming from outside. But normally areinhabitants themselves (heirs of the values containedtherein) that attract foreigners in order to get easyaccess to industrial modernity. Is the Island beingconquered by the Brave New World? Are the islandsbeing destroyed because they are too good for thisworld?

J. Alveirinho Dias J. Antunes do Carmo Marcus Polette


Revista da Gesto Costeira Integrada 10(3):255-279 (2010)Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 10(3):255-279 (2010)

Integrated Coastal Zone Management in small islands:A comparative outline of some islands of the Lesser Antilles *

Gesto integrada da zona costeira em pequenas ilhas:uma abordagem comparativa de algumas ilhas das Pequenas Antilhas

Pascal Saffache 1 & Pierre Angelelli @, 1

ABSTRACT

Small islands are ipso facto largely coastal entities. Therefore, ICZM is important in the Lesser Antilles which borderthe Eastern Caribbean Sea i.e. from Virgin Islands to Grenada and includes French territories (Guadeloupe, Martinique,St. Barthelemy and St. Martin), independent States and self-governing territories.

The Lesser Antilles, as we define them above, are very similar: located in the same geographical area they havecommon handicaps (small size, remoteness from mainland, insularity, small but concentrated population, narrow markets,economic dependence on a few products or services for export or import); they are very vulnerable to natural phenomena(hurricanes, earthquakes, erosion, tsunamis, volcanoes, global warming, rising sea levels, etc.) ; and they must protect theircoastline and coastal waters because they are an important natural capital for them, which attracts tourist incomes stronglycontributing (for some of them) to the economy. Because of these characteristics, the islands have mostly adhered tocommon international principles. This is particularly the Cartagena Convention (1983) prepared under the auspices ofthe United Nations Environment Programme, and its protocols (OSP 1983, SPAW 1990 and LBS 1999), Earth Summit(Rio 1992) and Chapter 17 of the Agenda 21, the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small IslandDeveloping States (Barbados 1994), the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg 2002).

Yet, despite these similarities, the Lesser Antilles islands differ in the implementation of integrated coastal zonemanagement. These differences are illustrated in the article with examples from Guadeloupe (Desirade and Marie-Galanteislands), Martinique (Le Robert bay), St. Lucia (Soufriere Parish) and others islands taking part in Coast and Beach

@ - Corresponding author:[email protected] Universit des Antilles et de la Guyane, Centre dEtude et de Recherche en Economie, Modlisation, Gestion et Informatique Applique - Center forresearch and studies in economics, marketing, modelisation and applied computer science (CEREGMIA EA 2440), Campus de Schoelcher, BP 7207,97275 Schoelcher Cedex, Martinique (FWI), Phone : 05.96.72.74.00, Fax : 05.96.72.74.03. e-mails: [email protected],[email protected]

* Submisso 16 Agosto 2010; Avaliao 12 Setembro 2010; Recepo da verso revista 21 Setembro 2010; Disponibilizao on-line 24 Setembro 2010

www.aprh.pt/rgciwww.gci.inf.brmailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]

Saffache & AngelelliRevista de Gesto Costeira Integrada / Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 10(3):255-279 (2010)

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Stability in the Caribbean Islands Program, and Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program (CARICOMP).We advocate that the divergences of ICZM in the Lesser Antilles can be mostly explained by the way in which the

economic valuation of coastal zones is considered (or is not considered) in each island.Thus, in the case of the French islands, the value of coastal zones is in general not economically estimated, because

the goods and services they provide are regarded by nature as non-market, belong to no one in their own and are to thefree disposal of all. As a result, these goods and services are little managed or managed by defect by a mosaic of publicauthorities. Hence, the ICZM is concentrated on coordinating public programs and services. In Guadeloupe and Martinique,ICZM reflects this approach.

In the case of independent islands and self-governing territories in the Lesser Antilles, where the natural capitalconcretely plays an important role in the economy through tourism revenue, the economic valuation of goods andservices output of the coastal zone is more developed. By measuring external economies and diseconomies, ICZM canbecome more operational as well in management itself as in the assessment of stakeholders interests and politicalprioritization in terms of town and country planning. So that it is less a question of coordinating policies and means, thanhaving human and material means sufficient for the control of the policies.

We conclude that the absence of a protection policy based on the economic valuation of coastal areas hinders, in theFrench Lesser Antilles, the awareness of the degradation of coastal and marine environment.

Keywords: Caribbean Sea; Economic Valuation; Guadeloupe; Integrated Coastal Zone Management; Martinique; NaturalCapital; Outermost Regions of European Union; Positive and Negative Externalities; Small Island Developing States.

RESUMOAs pequenas ilhas so, por definio, entidades essencialmente costeiras. Neste contexto, a Gesto Integrada das Zonas Costeiras (GIZC)

assume um papel importante para as Pequenas Antilhas situadas a leste do mar do Caribe (das Ilhas Virgens, a Norte, at Grenada, a Sul)incluindo os territrios franceses (Guadalupe, Martinica, Saint-Barthlemy e Saint-Martin), as ilhas independentes e os territrios autnomos.

Estas pequenas ilhas das Antilhas so muito similares: localizam-se na mesma rea geogrfica apresentando desvantagens tambmcomuns (pequena superfcie, afastamento, insularidade, populao pouco numerosa mas concentrada, mercado econmico limitado, dependnciaeconmica de um pequeno nmero de produtos ou servios para exportao); apresentam ainda vulnerabilidade aos fenmenos naturais (furaces,terramotos, eroso, tsunamis, vulces, aquecimento global, etc.), e a necessidade de proteger o litoral e as guas costeiras uma vez que estesconstituem um capital natural atractivo, que permitem captar rendimentos do turismo que contribuem significativamente para a sua economia.Face a tais caractersticas, estes territrios insulares tm vindo a aderir a princpios comuns internacionais, em particular os da Conveno deCartagena (1983) e seus protocolos, da Cimeira da Terra e do Captulo 17 da Agenda 21 (1992), do Programa de Aco Barbados parao Desenvolvimento Sustentvel dos Pequenos Estados Insulares (1994), e da Cimeira Mundial do Desenvolvimento Sustentvel (Joanesburgo2002).

No entanto, apesar das semelhanas, as Pequenas Antilhas divergem na aplicao dos princpios da GIZC. Estas divergncias soilustradas no presente artigo a partir de exemplos de Guadalupe (ilha de Desirade e ilha de Marie-Galante), Martinica (municpio litoral doRobert), Santa Lcia (freguesia da Soufriere) e diversas ilhas anglfonas que participam nos programas Coast and Beach Stability in theCaribbean Islands Program, e no Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program.

No presente artigo, demonstra-se que as divergncias da aplicao dos princpios da GIZC nas Pequenas Antilhas pode ser explicado,fundamentalmente, pelo modo como a avaliao econmica das zonas costeiras considerada (ou no considerada), em cada ilha.

Assim, no caso das ilhas francesas, o valor das zonas costeiras, em geral, no economicamente tido em considerao, uma vez que os bense servios que oferecem so considerados, por natureza, como no pertencendo a ningum e, por isso, disponveis gratuitamente para todos. Comoresultado, as zonas costeiras encontram-se literalmente sem valor comercial explcito e so pouco geridas, ou ento administradas por defeito porum mosaico de poderes pblicos. O exemplo de Guadalupe e Martinica demonstram o modo como a GIZC se focaliza na coordenao deprogramas e servios pblicos.

Nas ilhas independentes e territrios autnomos das Pequenas Antilhas, o capital natural desempenha um importante contributo para aeconomia que resulta das receitas provenientes do turismo. A valorao econmica dos bens e servios gerados pelas zonas costeiras muito maisdesenvolvida.

Atravs da medio das economias e deseconomias externas, a GIZC poder tornar-se mais operativa quer na sua prpria gesto, querigualmente na avaliao dos interesses locais e na classificao das prioridades polticas, em termos de ordenamento do territrio. Destacircunstncia observa-se tratar-se de uma questo de dispor dos meios humanos e materiais suficientes para a conduo das polticas, mais doque de coordenar polticas e meios.

Conclu-se do estudo efectuado nas ilhas francesas das Pequenas Antilhas que a ausncia de uma poltica de proteco apoiada no valor


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1. INTRODUCTION

Initiated in the late 1970s, the policies of integratedcoastal zone management (ICZM) aim at a rationalmanagement of coastal areas but also taking intoaccount all factors that influence and/or interact withthe marine environment. Clearly, this is a holisticpolicy based on linkage between land and sea.

This new policy had to be plural, because thefactors at the origin of the destruction of coastalresources and their depletion are also numerous :geometrical growth of the population,littoralization of men and their activities,misunderstanding of the role that economics shouldplay in managing coastal resources. In other words:coastal, marine and land environments are notmanaged sustainably.

An integrated coastal management policy shouldtherefore allow: to preserve natural habitats, to controlthe pollution and shoreline degradation, to managewith sustainability the activities carried on watersheds,rehabilitate degraded areas, finally to develop toolsto rationalize resources management.

At these targets, it is important to add anotherthat seems fundamental: not oppose economics andenvironmental sustainability, both being combinedperfectly to create jobs. This is the very meaning ofthe concept of sustainable development.

For various reasons, the approach of ICZM istherefore important for those environments that aremicro-islands of the Lesser Antilles. In this articlewe will limit the Lesser Antilles to the islands of theEastern Caribbean which form an arc from the VirginIslands in the north to Grenada in the south andinclude the French territories (Guadeloupe,Martinique, St. Barthelemy and St. Martin), theindependent islands (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados,Dominica, St. Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, SaintVincent and the Grenadines, Grenada) and self-governing territories (U.S. Virgin Islands; BritishOverseas Territories : Anguilla, British Virgin Islands,

Montserrat; the Netherlands Antilles : Sint-Maarten,Saba, Sint-Eustatius).

A presentation will be carried out starting fromthe example of the French departments of America(Guadeloupe and Martinique) and of thatindependent islands and self-governing territoriesIslands of the Lesser Antilles (mainly Saint Lucia, etc.).

This article aims to address the integrated coastalzone management (ICZM) in the Lesser Antilles asfollows.

First we recall the common features of ICZM (2.)noting that on this matter the independent and non-independent islands share closely related problemsespecially in terms of vulnerability and sustainabledevelopment (2.1.), which led them to adhere tocommon international principles (2.2.).

In a second step, we will however note startingfrom some illustrations that ICZM is implementedin very different ways (3.) in the French islands (3.1.)and in the independent islands (3.2.).

In a third step, we will wonder about some Frenchand European features that affect the managementof coastal areas in Guadeloupe and Martinique (4.1.).Then we will do the same about the characteristicsof ICZM in the independent islands and self-governing territories Islands of the Lesser Antillessuggesting that economic valuation of coastal areasis one of the essential characteristics distinguishingthe implementation of ICZM in the Lesser Antilles(4.2.).

Concerning the integrated coastal zonemanagement we will conclude (5.) that the strongsimilarities between all the islands of the LesserAntilles disappear because of adhesion with differenteconomic philosophies. These philosophies separatethem and it will be a long way before the Frenchislands of the Lesser Antilles become aware of thedegradation of coastal and marine and adopt a policyof protection based on economic valuation of coastalareas.

econmico estimado da zona costeira, poder ser responsvel pelo atraso na tomada de conscincia e na degradao dos ambientes litorais emarinhos dos territrios insulares, de pequena dimenso.

Palavras-chave : Mar do Caribe; Guadalupe; Gesto Integrada da Zona Costeira; Pequenas Antilhas; Capital Natural; Martinica;Regies Ultraperifricas da Unio Europeia.


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2. SOME COMMON FEATURES OF THECOASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT INTHE LESSER ANTILLES

2.1 The Lesser Antilles islands share similarproblems

2.1.1 Fragile and vulnerable economiesInsularity and remoteness are recognized since

1972 as characteristics of the Lesser Antilles. But asstructural handicaps, these characteristics appear onlyin 1991. It should however be noted that the economicdisadvantages associated with the size of small statesor their remoteness from markets are not absolute

and may even seem politically built concepts. In anycase, the link between economic development andsize especially between a weak development and asmall size remains under debate (Srinivasan, 1986;Armstrong et al., 1998; Easterly & Kraay, 2000;Logossah, 2007).

Anyway the Lesser Antilles share a sense ofvulnerability defined as the relative inability of theseterritories to shelter themselves from forces outsidetheir control (Briguglio, 1995).

With caution on economic level, the criterion ofvulnerability was established around some itemsallowing a common qualification of these territories.

Figure 1: Chart of the Lesser Antilles.Figura 1: Mapa das Pequenas Antilhas.


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The small size (territory and/or number ofinhabitants) is the first component of vulnerabilitythat characterizes the small island economies. It isfrequently associated with a weakness in naturalresources, a dependency in terms of imports andexports (monocultures, a few industrial products,tourism) or the difficulty to benefit from economiesof scale. The small size also limits the resourcesavailable locally, especially to elaborate and implementcoastal management zones policies (Mahon &McConney, 2004).

Insularity and remoteness are the secondcomponent: these elements increase the price of theimported or exported products and hazards indeliveries. They also impose additional costs ofstorage and insurance.

A third characteristic is susceptibility to naturaldisasters and their high impact on small territories:hurricanes, rain, mudslides, earthquakes, tsunamis,cyclonic waves, global warming and rising sea levels,etc. Furthermore the area is subject to volcanic threatsbecause of around twenty active volcanos, that inducea special vulnerability and give the size of eachterritory - as with most natural disasters - a veryparticular importance for protection against thevolcanos and, if necessary, the reception of the movedpopulations (Lesales, 2007).

Although the compound indexes of vulnerabilitybuilt from the early 1990s (Briguglio, 1995) arequestionable in economic terms (Logossah, 2007),they make it possible nevertheless to synthesize thehandicaps (Logossah, 2007).

The European Union has also used these factors(remoteness, insularity, small size, relief and climatedifficult, economic dependence with respect to a fewnumber of products) to characterize its outermostregions now number nine - among the 271 in theUnion since the entry into force of the Treaty ofLisbon (1 December 2009): Guadeloupe, FrenchGuiana, Martinique, Reunion, St. Barthelemy, St.Martin (France), Azores, Madeira (Portugal) andCanary Islands (Spain).

Moreover small size increase environmentalimpact of urbanization (concentration of manpoweror tourists, sanitation, waste, urbanization of the seafronts and erosion of the beaches, etc.) or agriculture(soil erosion, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.).

In these circumstances and in spite of theeconomic growth of the last two centuries based oncheap natural resources the preservation of thenatural capital of these islands to an high level isexpected to help increase resilience (Gibbs, 2009),itself threatened by human activities doped bytechnology (Pritchard et al., 2000).

2.1.2 A strong interaction between humans andthe marine environment.

The coastal environment can be easily underminedby man as mentioned in Chapter 17 of Agenda 21(17.18; 17.19).

The small islands are ipso facto largely coastalentities (United Nations, 1994), so they are heavilydependent on the marine environment. Still underChapter 17 of Agenda 21: Small island developingStates have all the environmental problems andchallenges of the coastal zone concentrated in alimited land area. They are considered extremelyvulnerable to global warming and sea level rise, withcertain small low-lying islands facing the increasingthreat of the loss of their entire national territories.Most tropical islands are also now experiencing themore immediate impacts of increasing frequency ofcyclones, storms and hurricanes associated withclimate change. These are causing major set-backs totheir socio-economic development.(Agenda 21,Chapter 17, 125).

The Barbados Conference of 1994 summarizesthese common issues, especially concerning land-based sources of pollution and the problem of solidand liquid wastes generated by urbanization(Declaration of Barbados, Part One, III.)

These factors determine a special vulnerability oftheir environment.

Finally, the dependence with regard to the coastalenvironment is remanent even though it has evolved.Thus, fishing activities may be relatively important interms of incomes and occupation of the activepopulation, but tourism, most of the time, supplantedthese traditional activities in terms of jobs andeconomic benefits (public and private) (Dehoorne &Saffache, 2008; Burke et al., 2008). However, thequality of coastal areas (beaches, bathing waters,habitats protected, etc.) is a key factor in attractingtourists (Schleupner, 2008).


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In turn, tourism, by the development of theurbanization and the infrastructures (touristwaterfront residences, highway network, etc.) and bythe increase in attendance of coastal waters, etc.changes the features of the anthropic pressure andincrease the threat on the coastal areas. Thus, inMartinique for example, most coastal structures arebuilt between 5 and 10 meters above sea level number of resorts are even built well below those 5meters i.e. in zones prone to flooding or erosion(Schleupner, 2008; Saffache, 2008).

2.2 To address these problems, the islands ofthe Lesser Antilles adhere to commoninternational principles

The United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) adopted in 1972 initiated since 1981 theCaribbean Environment Programme (CEP). TheCEP is at the origin of the movement of regional co-operation that was deployed on the marineenvironment issues in the Wider Caribbean in orderto jointly tackle the problems of this regional sea(Colmenares & Escobar, 2002; Singh & Mee, 2008).

This movement came to support the existingprovisions, in particular the Treaty of Chaguaramasestablishing the Caribbean Community (CARICOM)in 1973. Because the management of coastal areasoften exceeds political borders, cooperation hasbecome a necessity and not less than 36 internationalorganizations today support initiatives to coastalmanagement in Latin America and in the Caribbean(Rivera-Arriaga, 2005). However, the CaribbeanEnvironment Programme (CEP), acting under themandate of the Cartagena Convention is the only and the oldest organization dedicated to supportingICZM in the Caribbean. Other internationalorganizations or States World Bank, Inter-AmericanDevelopment Bank, Organization of American States,Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission ofUNESCO, United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment (USAID), etc. also support ICZMbut in a more general framework of environment anddevelopment.

Cartagena Convention of 1983 (United Nations,1983a)

This Convention covers the Wider Caribbean(Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and adjacent areasin the Atlantic) with a comprehensive approachconcerning the threats of pollution (ships, dumping,land based, offshore drilling) and appropriateresponses (definition of special areas for ecosystemprotection, cooperation in case of emergency,assessment of the impact on the environment,scientific and technical assistance).

This Convention is specified by three specializedprotocols:

a) The Oil Spills Protocol (United Nations, 1983b),signed in 1983 and ratified by all the Lesser Antilles,advocates an integrated protection which coversand protects the marine environment for itself andthe activities closely linked (maritime, costal,harbour, or estuarine activities; historical andtourist interests, including water sports andrecreation; health of coastal populations; fisheriesand conservation of natural resources) against oilspill incidents which have resulted in, or whichpose a significant threat of, pollution to the marineand coastal environment (Oil Spills Protocol, art.2). The States undertake to prevent and combatoil spills, and to promote technical cooperationamong them (preventive or operational after adisaster).

b) The SPAW Protocol of 1990 (United Nations,1990) aims to protect ecosystems, habitats of rareand fragile and endangered species. It entered intoforce in 2000 but was not ratified by St. Kitts andNevis, Dominica, Grenada and the UnitedKingdom (for British overseas territories :Anguilla, British Virgin islands, Monserrat andTurks and Caicos islands).The SPAW Protocol is a kind of prototype forintegrated coastal management zones. Three levelsof integration are indeed envisaged. Theintegration of the objectives: to protect spaces andthe species in danger, while recognizing theproductivity of ecosystems and natural resourcesthat provide economic or social benefits and uponwhich the welfare of local inhabitants is dependent (SPAW Protocol, art.4 c). The integration of the


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levels and a participative management: for theSPAW Protocol, the interdependence of theecosystems in the Wider Caribbean requires aregional agreement (even if the implementationremains the responsibility of each territoryconcerned (Art.3). Lastly, the integration of themeans is sought through the creation of protectedareas in which each State will focus a set ofmeasures of different kinds (discharges, urbanplanning, mining, human frequentation,occupational or recreational, etc.) within specialprovisions for planning, management andscientific monitoring (Art. 5 and 6).

c) The Land-Based Sources Protocol (LBS Protocol)signed in 1999 (United Nations, 1999b) is the thirdprotocol. It aims to reduce marine pollution fromland, in particular by the implementation of mostappropriate technology and managementapproaches such as integrated coastal areamanagement (Art.3 2) and the definition oftypes of pollution, of pollutant types and levelsof pollution. Although not yet in force becauseof a insufficient number of ratifications only 6States out of the 29 signatories of the CartagenaConvention ratified this Protocol: Belize, France(for the French departments of America), Panama,St. Lucia, Trinidad-and-Tobago and the UnitedStates this protocol is interesting.

It attempts to concretely define specificrequirements and procedures for government actionin the region. It defines such pollutant sources andactivities taking into account the specific context ofthe Wider Caribbean: domestic sewage, agriculturalnon-point sources, chemical industries, extractiveindustries and mining, food processing operations,manufacture of liquor and soft drinks, oil refineries,pulp and paper factories, sugar factories anddistilleries, intensive animal rearing operations.

On the other hand, the LBS Protocol was signedafter the 1992 Rio Conference, the BarbadosProgramme of Action for the SustainableDevelopment of Small Island Developing StatesAction (1994) and the Global Programme of Actionof Washington (1995). So it integrates in theCartagena Convention the aspects mentionedhereafter.

The United Nations Conference on Environmentand Development (UNCED), also called RioConference or Earth Summit, held in Rio deJaneiro in 1992.

The Earth Summit adopted a Programme relatedto sustainable development (Agenda 21) declined inseveral chapters, including one in particular (Chapter17) deals with both Protection of the oceans, allkinds of seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosedseas, and coastal areas and the protection, rationaluse and development of their living resources andthe Sustainable development of small islands.

One finds there idea of integration of- objectives and naturally of the three pillars

of sustainable development which areenvironmental protection, economics andsociety ,

- policies and decision-making processes,- land and marine areas considered

interdependent,- but also time itself (preserving the future;

taking account of the past), etc.

Thus, given the degradation of the marineenvironment, States must have an anticipatoryapproach partly based on the integrated managementof coastal areas ( 17.21) and adopt standards for theprotection of the marine environment against land-based pollution or activities at sea.

Furthermore, provisions for the sustainabledevelopment of small island countries are envisagedbecause they are deemed ecologically fragile andvulnerable, economically handicapped because oftheir small size, limited resources, geographicdispersion and remoteness of markets. According toAgenda 21, these States must implement programsthat facilitate sustainable development and utilizationof their marine and coastal resources maintainingbiodiversity and improving the quality of life for islandpeople (17.128a). In practice, these include adaptcoastal area management techniques, such as planning,sitting and environmental impact assessments, usingGeographical Information Systems (GIS), suitable tothe special characteristics of small islands, taking intoaccount the traditional and cultural values ofindigenous people of island countries (17.129d).


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Global Conference on the SustainableDevelopment of Small Island Developing Statesheld in Barbados in 1994 (United Nations, 1994).

The Barbados Programme of Action for theSustainable Development of Small Island DevelopingStates has been adopted by 111 Governments at theGlobal Conference of Barbados in 1994. By placingspecial emphasis on technical assistance, it specifiesAgenda 21 concerning the Small Island DevelopingStates and is itself an integrated framework forsustainable development small island states (UnitedNations, 1999a). Part of the Barbados Programme isdedicated to the management of coastal areas thatmust take place within coastal watersheds and helpcollect data on ecosystems, in particular as regardstraditional knowledge and practices of management.

Global Programme of Action for the Protectionof the Marine Environment from Land-BasedActivities adopted in Washington in 1995 (UnitedNations, 1995).

Adopted by 108 governments and the EuropeanUnion in November 1995 on the initiative of UNEP,the GPA (Global Programme of Action GPA)considers that the marine environment is threatenedby the human activities at sea or from land. But,contrary to an international agreement, the GPA doesnot legally bind the States. Furthermore, it is notexpressly designed for the islands.

Nevertheless the GPA is a continuation of theguidelines of the Cartagena Convention (1983) andprefigures LBS Protocol (1999). In terms of method,the GPA recommends that States following the RioConference prevent degradation of the marineenvironment including by precautionary approach, assess the impact of potentially harmful activitiesto the environment, integrate environmentalprotection into the other public policies includingeconomic development, town and country planning,etc. and promote the internalization ofenvironmental costs - in particular the polluter paysprinciple.

World Summit on Sustainable Development heldin Johannesburg in 2002 (United Nations, 2002).

The application of GPA to small islands has been

the subject of special attention at the Summit ofJohannesburg. Hence the Plan of Implementation ofthe World Summit on Sustainable Developmentincludes a Chapter VII on Small Island DevelopingStates. This Plan focuses on the acceleratedimplementation of the Barbados Plan (internationalfinancial support, cooperation and technologytransfer), the action on the conservation of marineresources and the control and reduction of land-basedpollution in accordance with the GPA.

Caribbean Memorandum of Understanding onPort State Control (Caribbean MoU, 1996).

Finally the principle of control of ships by theport state is adopted in the Caribbean. ThirteenCaribbean States have thus agreed to check theapplication of international standards for ship safetywhen ships are at call. The goal is to improve thesafety in the Caribbean by banning sub-standard ships,without creating new rules but applying those whichexist at the global level of the International MaritimeOrganization.

In summary, the Lesser Antilles islands are sharingcommon issues of Small Island Developing Statesand the Caribbean Sea. Hence they adhered, directlyor by their metropolitan States, to internationalagreements aimed at sustainable development,including ICZM. However, the implementation ofICZM leads to very different practices. One willillustrate hereafter these practices with some examplesdrawn from islands under French sovereignty andindependent English-speaking islands.

3. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ICZMIN THE LESSER ANTILLES HOWEVERREMAINS CONTRASTED: EXAMPLES

3.1. Three examples of ICZM in Guadeloupeand Martinique (French West Indies)

3.1.1 The cases of Desirade and Marie-Galante(Guadeloupe)

Covering an area of 22 km2 (11 km long by 2 kmwide) with a population of 1591 inhabitants (2006),the island of Desirade is located about ten kilometreseast of the Grande Terre of the Guadeloupe. Onlyits southern coast is inhabited. The northern portionof the island is uninhabited and consists of sharp


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cliffs that provide shelter to a large marine avifauna.Although this island is wild and lonely, it has a naturalsite of a great richness categorized as remarkablearea and as such protected by French legislation fortown planning.

Because of its double insularity, its history (Iledes Reclus), the shallow depth and low fertility ofits soil, its limited water resources and more generallythe weakness of the economic activities (fishing theisland count today 122 professional fishermen ;breeding goats and fruit production), the island ofDesirade joined with Marie-Galante to answer anational call for applications for local projects

Three objectives were pursued:

- the preservation of natural areas (terrestrial andmarine);

- the valorisation of the knowledge and know-how;

- the reversal of migration flows the totalpopulation having passed from 1621 to 1591inhabitants between the two general censusesof 1999 and 2007.

More precisely, the island of Desirade wanted partof a true dynamic tourism by promoting its naturalassets, because it is one of the oldest island entities inthe Lesser Antilles (creation of a cactuseum, visitof the old buildings of the French MeteorologicalOffice, a lighthouse, etc.).

Located forty miles south of the Guadeloupe,Marie-Galante is a limestone island of 158 km2, whichcounted 12,459 inhabitants in 1999 and 11,939 in 2007,spread over three municipalities (Saint-Louis,Capesterre, and Grand-Bourg). Its economy remainsfragile, because focused on the monoculture ofsugarcane and processing sugar (1 factory) and rum(3 distilleries); fishing activity employs currently 106fishermen.

To revitalize its activities, three objectives werepursued:

- balancing the exodus of the population towardsthe mainland (the total population droppedby 4% between 1999 and 2007);

- mitigating the effects of double insularity;- finally, revitalizing the territory with a true

policy of sustainable development.

Two major projects were identified: creating anature reserve, in order to assert the ecological andcultural heritage of the island, and building a Houseof Nature, for educational purposes and tourism.

Given the tourism and leisure weakened, theconstruction of a House of Nature was expectedto make it possible to create some jobs, but also boostthis new sector.

These projects were part of a true logic ofsustainable development with a mixed natureprotection and economic development targeted oncoastal areas.

To sum up, in Desirade and Marie-Galante, ICZMis entirely public managed to stem demographic andeconomic problems of these micro-islands, andattract tourists from Guadeloupe.

3.1.2 The case of the Municipality of Le Robert(Martinique)

The Municipality of Le Robert is located on theeast coast of Martinique. With 24,068 inhabitants(2007) for an area of 47 km2, it has high populationgrowth rate (+13.6% between 1999 and 2007) mainlydue to net immigration. It is indeed very attractive byits relative proximity to the capital of the island Fort de France, which lies about 15 km while beingon a deep bay and favourable to water sports andbeach but that also serves as a receptacle towatersheds.

The demographic dynamism of the Le Robertwas accompanied by an occupation of the hinterland,

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