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Figura 01; Figura 02
Descrio clnica
Com a ave em decbito dorsal, as paredes do trio direito e o
ventrculo so posicionados na parte superior. Aps a morte, os
trios, muitas vezes expandir-se com sangue e pode
aparecer bastante alargada. Os vasos grandes pode ser visto
entrando na base do corao. O msculo do corao deve
ser marrom-avermelhada na cor. Uma quantidade varivel
de gordura estar presente nas ranhuras coronrias. Se o
pssaro est abatido, essa gordura pode estar ausente ou
sofreram atrofia serosa, resultando em uma
aparncia gelatinosa molhado. Olhar para quaisquer leses
externas sobre a superfcie do epicrdico do corao ou
na gordura circundante.
Figura 03
Descrio clnicaO msculo do corao deve ser marrom-avermelhada nacor. Uma quantidade varivel de gordura estar presente nasranhuras coronrias. Se o pssaro est abatido, essagordura pode estar ausente ou sofreram atrofia serosa,resultando em uma aparnciagelatinosa molhado. Olhar paraquaisquer leses externas sobre a superfcie do epicrdio docorao ou na gordura circundante.
Figura 04
Descrio clnica
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Ver do lado esquerdo do corao.
Figura 05
Descrio clnica
Vista do pice do corao.
Figura 06
Descrio clnica
A parte inferior 1/3 do pice do corao foi removido. Este
ponto de vista permite que a espessura das
paredes ventriculares e septo de ser avaliada. A parede do
ventrculo direito livre deve ser aproximadamente 1/3 a 1/2 a
espessura do septo intraventricular eda parede ventricular
esquerda livre. No corao normal, o lmen
dos ventrculos deve ser pequena e no deve
haver espao insignificante entre as paredes do ventriculae eosepto. Nas doenas cardacas, como hipertenso pulmonar
ou defeitos congnitos, este espao ser ampliado.
Figura 07
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Descrio clnicaNesta perspectiva, as cmaras do trio direito eoventrculo foram abertas por meio de corte at a parede livre doventrculo direito. Uma vez aberta, a
vlvula atrioventriculardireita e endocrdio so expostos. Afolha septal da valva direita normalmente muito musculoso.
Figura 08
Descrio clnica
Nesta perspectiva, as cmaras do trio esquerdo e o
ventrculo foram abertas por meio de corte at a parede livre do
ventrculo esquerdo. A valva atrioventricular esquerda
geralmente fina e lisa.
Figura 09
Descrio clnica
A aorta foi aberta atravs da insero de tesoura sob a valva
atrioventricular esquerdae corte para cima. O lmen normal
da aorta, como visto aqui, branco cremoso e os folhetos
da vlvula artica so uniformes e muito finas.
Figura 10
Descrio clnica
O fgado separado em um lobo direito e esquerdo, conforme
visto aqui, ligado na base. O lobo heptico direito
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ligeiramente maior que o esquerdo e as margens hepticas
devem chegar a uma borda fina crocante.
11
Clinical Description
In domestic birds, the left lobe has a fissure running along its
surface, dividing it into 2 parts.
12
Clinical Description
The liver is separated into a right and left lobe, as seen here,
attached at the base. The right hepatic lobe is slightly larger
than the left and the liver margins should come to a thin crisp
edge.
13
Clinical Description
The overall size of the liver is variable, often extending beyond
the edge of the sternum. To identify hepatomegaly, look at the
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liver margins. Blunted or thickened margins are a sign of an
enlarged liver.
14
Clinical Description
Healthy hepatic parenchyma should be somewhat firm on
palpation and have a smooth and glistening appearance. The
color of the liver can vary depending on the nutritional state of
the bird. Generally, the liver is reddish-brown but it can be light
brown or even slightly yellow, depending on the fat content in
the diet. However, a very yellow liver is an abnormal finding,
except in chicks between 1 to 5 days of age.
15
Clinical Description
Healthy hepatic parenchyma should be somewhat firm on
palpation and have a smooth and glistening appearance. The
color of the liver can vary depending on the nutritional state ofthe bird. Generally, the liver is reddish-brown but it can be light
brown or even slightly yellow, depending on the fat content in
the diet. However, a very yellow liver is an abnormal finding,
except in chicks between 1 to 5 days of age.
16
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Clinical Description
The gallbladder is located on the visceral surface of the right
hepatic lobe.
It is normally dark green in color, due to the bile located within
the lumen of this thin-walled structure. During autolysis, bile
pigments may leak out of the gallbladder, staining the adjacent
hepatic tissues yellow to green. This bile inbibition is a normal
part of autolysis and should not be confused with a lesion.
Similar staining can also occur in the ascending duodenum,
adjacent to the area where the bile and pancreatic ducts empty.
The size of the gallbladder is variable and may be enlarged in
birds that are off-feed.
17
Clinical Description
The gallbladder is located on the visceral surface of the right
hepatic lobe.
It is normally dark green in color, due to the bile located within
the lumen of this thin-walled structure. During autolysis, bilepigments may leak out of the gallbladder, staining the adjacent
hepatic tissues yellow to green. This bile inbibition is a normal
part of autolysis and should not be confused with a lesion.
Similar staining can also occur in the ascending duodenum,
adjacent to the area where the bile and pancreatic ducts empty.
The size of the gallbladder is variable and may be enlarged in
birds that are off-feed.
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18
Clinical Description
View of the liver on cross section. As seen here, the color and
texture should be uniform. Focal or regional changes may
indicate a lesion. Its normal for a small amount of blood to
ooze from the cut surface of the liver
19
Clinical Description
The lungs are tightly adhered to the dorsal rib cage. Their colorshould be bright pink in a fresh bird but will become increasinly
more congested, wet, and dark red with autolysis, as seen here.
To assess the lungs, do not over-interpret their color but rather,
use a combination of visual inspection and palpation to assess
the health of this tissue.
20
Clinical Description
The air sacs are thin membranes distributed throughout the
body. In a fresh healthy bird, air sacs should be transparent but,as seen here, the membranes will become slightly cloudy after
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death. In over-conditioned birds, fat may be present on the air
sac membranes. Inflammation of the air sacs can result in
thickened membranes, opacities, or fibrin deposition. Fluid,
foam, or exudate can accumulate between the air sac
membranes.
21
Clinical Description
The proventriculus is the glandular stomach that lies between
the esophagus and the gizzard. It is lined with mucosal glands
that secrete digestive enzymes important in food break down.
On close inspection, these glands can be seen through the
serosal surface, giving it a honeycomb-like texture. On
palpation the proventriculus should feel turgid and, its surface
should be shiny tan. Look for abnormalities such as
hemorrhagic lesions or neoplastic infiltrates on its surface
22
Clinical Description
The serosa of the proventriculus is normally shiny, tan, and has
a fine vascular pattern. In a fresh bird, on close inspection, the
glands can be visualized through the mucosa. The muscular
wall of the proventriculus should feel uniformly turgid.
Flaccidity or dilatation of the organ might indicate an improper
diet or feeding program, infection, or neuromusculardysfunction.
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The external features of the ventriculus, or gizzard, should
consist of alternating bands of dark red and light red smooth
muscles, forming a roughly circular shape.
These muscles may be covered by a thick layer of fat, as seenhere. On palpation, the gizzard should be extremely firm.
Thinning or laxity in the muscles may indicate inflammation, an
improper diet or feeding program, or neuromuscular problems.
23
Clinical Description
The proventriculus in situ.
24
Clinical Description
The serosa of the proventriculus is normally shiny, tan, and has
a fine vascular pattern. In a fresh bird, on close inspection, theglands can be visualized through the mucosa. The muscular
wall of the proventriculus should feel uniformly turgid.
Flaccidity or dilatation of the organ might indicate an improper
diet or feeding program, infection, or neuromuscular
dysfunction.
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The external features of the ventriculus, or gizzard, should
consist of alternating bands of dark red and light red smooth
muscles, forming a roughly circular shape.
These muscles may be covered by a thick layer of fat. Onpalpation, the gizzard should be extremely firm. Thinning or
laxity in the muscles may indicate inflammation, an improper
diet or feeding program, or neuromuscular problems.
25
Clinical Description
View of the serosal surface of the proventriculus and gizzard
(ventriculus).
26
Clinical Description
Close-up of the glands of the proventriculus as seen throughthe outer wall.
27
Clinical Description
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View of the glands of the proventriculus as seen from the
mucosal surface.
28
Clinical Description
Close-up view of the glands of the proventriculus as seen from
the mucosal surface.
29
Clinical Description
The contents of the proventriculus can vary from mucoid and
creamy to more formed pieces of ingesta, depending on howrecently the bird ate.
30
Clinical Description
View of the serosal surface of the proventriculus and gizzard
(ventriculus).
31
Clinical Description
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The external features of the ventriculus, or gizzard, should
consist of alternating bands of dark red and light red smooth
muscles, forming a roughly circular shape.
These muscles may be covered by a thick layer of fat, as seen
here.
32
Clinical Description
View of the left side of the proventriculus and gizzard.
33
Clinical Description
The consistency of the gizzard contents will vary depending on
the stage of digestion. Generally, it contains fibers and portions
of seeds. Additionally, small pebbles, ingested to facilitate the
break up of food, may also be present
34
Clinical Description
The mucosa of the gizzard is covered by a sturdy layer of
protein called koilin, which aids in food digestion. The koilin
layer should be smooth and uniform.
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The color may vary from white, to yellow, to green depending
on the diet and the degree of bile staining.
35
Clinical Description
Close-up view of the koilin layer of the gizzard (ventriculus).
36
Clinical Description
The spleen is located dorsal to the gizzard.
37
On very close inspection, the spleen as a slight stippled pattern.
38
On very close inspection, the spleen as a slight stippled pattern.
39
On very close inspection, the spleen as a slight stippled pattern.
40
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View of the cut section of the spleen. On cross section, the
spleen may appear slightly granular due to the variations in red
and white pulp.
41
The duodenum has a descending and ascending loop,
arranged in a U-shape.
The loops are held together by a thin strip of mesentery and
surround the pancreas. The appearance of the intestine can
vary greatly depending on the post-mortem condition of thebird. In a fresh bird, the serosa of a healthy intestine is usually
pink, smooth, and glistening. As the post-mortem interval
increases, the intestinal walls will become congested, as seen
here, and eventually, even a healthy loop of bowel may appear
dark red. However, if the serosa has a dull granular
appearance, this can be evidence of inflammation.
The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightlyyellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident.
Swelling of the pancreas can be recognized if the organ
extends beyond its normal location between the loops of the
duodenum.
42
The walls of the duodenum should be smooth and uniform and
offer little resistance to incision. In the proximal duodenum, the
ingesta is normally mucoid and pale tan to yellow. Distal to the
bile ducts, the ingesta becomes more green in color.
43
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The duodenum has a descending and ascending loop,
arranged in a U-shape.
The loops are held together by a thin strip of mesentery and
surround the pancreas. The appearance of the intestine canvary greatly depending on the post-mortem condition of the
bird. In a fresh bird, the serosa of a healthy intestine is usually
pink, smooth, and glistening. As the post-mortem interval
increases, the intestinal walls will become congested, as seen
here, and eventually, even a healthy loop of bowel may appear
dark red. However, if the serosa has a dull granular
appearance, this can be evidence of inflammation.
The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightly
yellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident.
Swelling of the pancreas can be recognized if the organ
extends beyond its normal location between the loops of the
duodenum.
44
The duodenum has a descending and ascending loop,
arranged in a U-shape.
The loops are held together by a thin strip of mesentery and
surround the pancreas. The appearance of the intestine can
vary greatly depending on the post-mortem condition of the
bird. In a fresh bird, the serosa of a healthy intestine is usuallypink, smooth, and glistening. As the post-mortem interval
increases, the intestinal walls will become congested, as seen
here, and eventually, even a healthy loop of bowel may appear
dark red. However, if the serosa has a dull granular
appearance, this can be evidence of inflammation.
The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightly
yellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident.
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Swelling of the pancreas can be recognized if the organ
extends beyond its normal location between the loops of the
duodenum.
45
The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightly
yellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident.
Swelling of the pancreas can be recognized if the organ
extends beyond its normal location between the loops of the
duodenum.
46
On close inspection, the pancreas has a fine glandular texture.
47
After 10 days of age, the only remnant of the yolk sac is a small
tag of scar tissue, called Meckels diverticulum. This tag,
located on the antimesenteric side of the intestine, contains
lymphoid tissue and is part of the GALT, or Gut Associated
Lymphoid Tissue. Meckels diverticulum is also an
important anatomical landmark, as it is located at the junction
between the jejunum and the ileum. Being able to differentiatethe jejunum from the ileum is important to generating
differentials for intestinal diseases. Some infections, such as
coccidiosis, have a predilection for the jejunum and other
diseases target the ileum.
48
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After 10 days of age, the only remnant of the yolk sac is a small
tag of scar tissue, called Meckels diverticulum. This tag,
located on the antimesenteric side of the intestine, contains
lymphoid tissue and is part of the GALT, or Gut Associated
Lymphoid Tissue. Meckels diverticulum is also an
important anatomical landmark, as it is located at the junction
between the jejunum and the ileum. Being able to differentiate
the jejunum from the ileum is important to generating
differentials for intestinal diseases. Some infections, such as
coccidiosis, have a predilection for the jejunum and other
diseases target the ileum.
49
At the junction between the ileum and the descending colon,
are two blind-ended sacs known as the ceca. In domestic
poultry, the cecae are large structures that bend over
themselves, with their apices pointing caudally. The walls
should be thin and semi-translucent, allowing the greenish-colored intestinal contents to be visualized within. If the walls
are opaque, thin or irregular, infection should be suspected.
50
At the junction between the ileum and the descending colon,
are two blind-ended sacs known as the ceca. In domesticpoultry, the cecae are large structures that bend over
themselves, with their apices pointing caudally. The walls
should be thin and semi-translucent, allowing the greenish-
colored intestinal contents to be visualized within. If the walls
are opaque, thin or irregular, infection should be suspected.
51
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At the base of the ceca, near the junction of the ileum and the
descending colon, are 2 important lymphoid structures called
cecal tonsils. The tissue here bulges outward slightly as it is
thicker and slightly more granular.
52
At the base of the ceca, near the junction of the ileum and the
descending colon, are 2 important lymphoid structures called
cecal tonsils. The tissue here bulges outward slightly as it is
thicker and slightly more granular.
53
As demonstrated here, the cecal tonsils should be opened and
the mucosa examined closely. This is a common location for
lesions to be detected. In inflammatory or neoplastic diseases,
the tonsils may be come enlarged and mottled red and tan. In
some viral infections, the lymphoid tissue may become necrotic,
causing the tonsils to become red.
54
The cecal tonsil has been opened to show the mucosa. Its
important to examine this area closely for lesions. Ininflammatory or neoplastic disease, the cecal tonsils may
become enlarged and mottled red and tan. In some viral
infections, this lymphoid tissue may become necrotic, causing
the tonsils to become red.
55
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As demonstrated here, the cecal tonsils should be opened and
the mucosa examined closely. This is a common location for
lesions to be detected. In inflammatory or neoplastic diseases,
the tonsils may be come enlarged and mottled red and tan. In
some viral infections, the lymphoid tissue may become necrotic,
causing the tonsils to become red.
56
The serosa of the ileum should be shiny, tan, and smooth, with
no thickening or bulges. Be careful not to over-interpret the
color of the intestinal walls as post-mortem congestion and
autolysis can quickly turn the intestinal walls red or black.
Because the intestinal walls are semi-translucent, look for areas
of proliferation or mucosal exudate which can sometimes be
visualized through the intestinal wall.
At the junction between the ileum and the descending colon,
are two blind-ended sacs known as the ceca. In domesticpoultry, the cecae are large structures that bend over
themselves, with their apices pointing caudally. The walls
should be thin and semi-translucent, allowing the greenish-
colored intestinal contents to be visualized within. If the walls
are opaque, thin or irregular, infection should be suspected.
57
The quality of intestinal ingesta can yield important clues about
the functional status of the intestines. If the ingesta is normal,
as seen here, regardless of the appearance of the intestinal
wall, the intestines were likely functioning normal at the time of
death. If the content is abnormal, intestinal dysfunction is
present. Keep in mind that as the ingesta moves though theintestines, its color and consistency will change. In the jejunum,
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pictured here, the ingesta becomes slightly thicker and yellow
tan in color.
58
Distal to the ceca, the intestines continue as a short straight
tube known as the descending colon. These walls should be
smooth and uniform. Look for any dilatations which may
indicate an obstruction due to a mechanical blockage, a scar, or
another disease process.
59
The cloaca is the common chamber for the gastrointestinal,
urinary, and reproductive tracts. Here the cloaca has been
opened. By the time ingesta enters the cloaca, it should have
the normal color and consistency of feces and will be mixed
with urates from the urinary system.
60
On the dorsal wall of the cloaca is a diverticulum called the
Bursa of Fabricius.
This structure is an important lymphoid organ. The shape of the
bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pearshaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped.
The size varies with the age of the bird. It typically reaches its
maximum size between 4 to 12 weeks of age, at which time it
can weigh up to 4 grams. Normally, the bursa begins to involute
when the bird is approximately 3 months of age. By the time the
bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident on
gross examination.
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On the dorsal wall of the cloaca is a diverticulum called the
Bursa of Fabricius.
This structure is an important lymphoid organ. The shape of the
bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pear
shaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped.
The size varies with the age of the bird. It typically reaches its
maximum size between 4 to 12 weeks of age, at which time it
can weigh up to 4 grams. Normally, the bursa begins to involute
when the bird is approximately 3 months of age. By the time the
bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident ongross examination.
62
On the dorsal wall of the cloaca is a diverticulum called the
Bursa of Fabricius.
This structure is an important lymphoid organ. The shape of the
bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pear
shaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped.
The size varies with the age of the bird. It typically reaches its
maximum size between 4 to 12 weeks of age, at which time it
can weigh up to 4 grams. Normally, the bursa begins to involute
when the bird is approximately 3 months of age. By the time the
bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident ongross examination.
63
On the dorsal wall of the cloaca is a diverticulum called the
Bursa of Fabricius.
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This structure is an important lymphoid organ. The shape of the
bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pear
shaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped.
The size varies with the age of the bird. It typically reaches its
maximum size between 4 to 12 weeks of age, at which time it
can weigh up to 4 grams. Normally, the bursa begins to involute
when the bird is approximately 3 months of age. By the time the
bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident on
gross examination.
64
The bursa of Fabricius has been opened to show its mucosal
surface. The normal mucosa consists of many folds of tissue,
which are pale white to pink or tan and slightly firm on
palpation.
65
The vent, located just beneath the tail, is the external orifice of
the urinary, genital and gastrointestinal systems. The normal
vent is free of fecal and urate staining, swelling, redness, or
evidence of trauma.
66
This image shows the normal ovary of a sexually immature
female, approximately 10 weeks of age. Here, the ovary is small
and inactive.
67
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View of the dorsal aspect of the ribs. Note that the ventral ribs
have been removed from the field.
68
The kidneys consist of a right and left chain, with each chain
being made up of 3 lobes. The lobes are tightly embedded in
the bone of the synsacrum. They are normally red to dark
mahogany brown in color and have a slightly granular texture.
69
This image shows a detailed view of the normal texture of the
kidneys.
70
The nerves should have a creamy-white color and a slightlystriated texture on close inspection. This image shows a normal
ishiadic plexus in the caudal coelomic cavity.
71
The thyroid glands should be smooth, oval, and reddish-brown
in color. On very close inspection, the thyroid glands have avery fine granular appearance.
72
A properly formed beak, shown here, is bilaterally symmetrical
and the upper and lower halves should form a smooth line
where they articulate.
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73
A properly formed beak is bilaterally symmetrical and the upper
and lower halves should form a smooth line where they
articulate. Nutritional imbalances may result in beakmalformations. The color of the beak depends on the birds
coloration, with lighter birds typically having yellow beaks.
However, beak color can also be influenced by physiologic
factors. For example, yellow pigment in the beak may be lost as
the chicken produces more eggs.
74
The oropharynx should be examined for any lesions. Note that
birds do not have a soft palate or a discrete boundary between
the oral cavity and the pharynx. The color of the oral mucosa
will vary with lighter birds tending to have a pink mucosa while
darker birds will have more pigment. Look for ulcers, erosions,
opacities, diptheritic nodules, or other lesions.
75
A birds tongue is supported by the hyobranchial apparatus,
making it somewhat inflexible.
76
The color of the oral mucosa will vary with the overall coloration
of the bird. However, the mucosa should be free of ulcers,
erosions, opacities, diptheritic nodules, and other lesions.
77
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The dorsal surface of the chicken tongue should be smooth and
pink. There is a row of large papillae near the caudal
attachment of the tongue. Inspect the tongue for any lesions
such as ulcers or nodules.
78
The dorsal surface of the chickens tongue is smooth and
there is a row of large papillae near the caudal attachment.
When inspecting the tongue, look for ulcers and erosions.
79
On the roof of the oropharynx is a fissure, called the choana,
which opens into the nasal cavity. Inspect the area around the
choana for ulcers. The choana is also a good place to find
respiratory exudate. Birds do not form liquid pus and inspusated
exudate tends to accumulate in the choanal orifice. If exudate is
present, you can collect a swab sample from the choana. The
choana is surrounded by ridges and rows of sharp well-
demarcated papillae that point caudally. A variety of diseases
can damage the papillae, resulting in blunting.
80
Just caudal to the choana is the infundibular cleft. This is the
opening to the Eustachian tube and it is surrounded by ridges
and rows of sharp well-demarcated papilla that point caudally.
81
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The tongue, esophagus, and trachea have been removed as
one unit. This view allows the structures of the structures of the
caudal oral cavity and pharynx to be examined more closely.
82
The tongue, esophagus, and trachea have been removed as
one unit. This view allows the structures of the caudal oral
cavity and pharynx to be examined more closely.
83
The esophagus runs down the length of the neck and, in
domestic species, is interrupted by a diverticulum called the
crop. The esophagus continues down the neck and empties into
the proventriculus. The esophagus and crop are thin-walled and
located just below the skin. Their outer surfaces should be pale
tan and smooth.
84
The esophagus runs down the length of the neck and, in
domestic species, is interrupted by a diverticulum called the
crop. The esophagus continues down the neck and empties into
the proventriculus. The esophagus and crop are thin-walled andlocated just below the skin. Their outer surfaces should be pale
tan and smooth.
85
The mucosal surface of the esophagus should be smooth and
glistening.
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The cranial portion contains many glands and the caudal
portion has numerous longitudinal folds. The color along the
entire length should be pale tan to pink.
The presence of proliferative lesions may indicate a viralinfection or a dietary imbalance.
You can gently wash away any food material from the walls of
the crop with some water but do not scrape the mucosa. Food
material should wash away easily while fibrin and exudate will
stick to the mucosa. Look for ulcers and erosions, which appear
as red or pale depressions in the mucosa.
86
The caudal portion of the normal esophagus has numerous
longitudinal folds, as seen here.
87
You can gently wash away any food material from the walls of
the crop with some water but do not scrape the mucosa. Food
material should wash away easily while fibrin and exudate will
stick to the mucosa. Look for ulcers and erosions, which appear
as red or pale depressions in the mucosa.
88
You can gently wash away any food material from the walls of
the crop with some water but do not scrape the mucosa. Food
material should wash away easily while fibrin and exudate will
stick to the mucosa. Look for ulcers and erosions, which appear
as red or pale depressions in the mucosa.
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89
The trachea should be uniform in color, ranging from pale pink
to tan or white and the external surface should be smooth.
Upper respiratory disease may produce tracheal lesions thatare sometimes visible on the outer surface. Look for
discoloration, nodules, or irregularities in the tracheal cartilages.
90
The trachea is a thin tube completely encircled by small
cartilagenous rings.
The trachea should be uniform in color, ranging from pale tan to
white and the external surface should be smooth. Look for
discoloration, nodules, or irregularities in the tracheal cartilages.
91
The trachea is a thin tube completely encircled by cartilagenous
rings. The trachea should be uniform in color, ranging from pale
pink to tan or white and the external surface should be smooth.
Upper respiratory disease may produce tracheal lesions that
are sometimes visible on the outer surface. Look for
discoloration, nodules, or irregularities in the tracheal cartilages.
92
At the terminal end of the trachea lies the syrinx, a flattened
area at the junction of the trachea and the primary bronchi. The
syrinx is responsible for generating vocal sounds.
93
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Since the diameter of the syrinx is significantly smaller than that
of the trachea, examine this area closely for occlusions caused
by exudate, fungal mats, or parasites.
94
Since the diameter of the syrinx is significantly smaller than that
of the trachea, examine this area closely for occlusions caused
by exudate, fungal mats, or parasites.
95
View of the inside lumen of the trachea.
96
The left jugular vein of the bird, seen here, is much larger than
the right.
97
The left jugular vein of the bird, seen here, is much larger than
the left. The vagal and glossopharyngeal nerves are closely
associated with the veins.
98
The vagal and glossopharyngeal nerves run parallel with the
jugular veins.
99
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The thyroid glands are located on each side of the neck, medial
to the jugular vein and cranial to the origin of the subclavian and
common carotid arteries.
100
The glands should be smooth, oval, and reddish-brown in color.
On very close inspection, the thyroid glands have a very fine
granular appearance.
101
Just caudal to the thyroid glands are the small pale pink
parathyroid glands. The right parathyroid gland, seen here, lies
directly adjacent to the right thyroid gland.
The left parathyroid gland is slightly separated from the left
thyroid gland.
102
The thymus is a bilateral chain of structures, located in the
lateral neck region. each side is composed of 4 to 7 lobes. In
chickens less than 17 weeks of age, the thymus should be
visible but normally regresses around the time of sexual
maturity.
103
The lobes of the thymus, normally present only in immature
birds, are pale tan to pink in color.
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104
The avian brain has a smooth surface, with no gyri or sulci. Its
cortex should appear smooth and glistening and the right and
left sides should be symmetrical.
105
This image shows a detailed view of the surface of the normal
cerebrum.
106
The 3 muscles involved in flight in the bird, called the pectoral
muscles, lie on either side of the keel bone. These muscles are
very large, making them ideal for body muscle assessment. The
muscles should be smooth and have a relatively uniform
texture.
107
The pectoral muscles can be removed from the keel and ribs in
order to examine them more closely. Look for areas of necrosis,
inflammation, or hemorrhage.
108
With the muscles removed, look for areas of necrosis,
inflammation, or hemorrhage. A series of parallel cuts through
the muscle bellies can facilitate this assessment.
109
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The eyelids should be free of swelling or exudate from ocular
discharge.
110
The eyelids should be free of swelling or exudate from ocular
discharge.
111
The cornea should be clear and convex and the sclera white.Iris color will vary with the breed and color of the bird however,
look for abnormalities of the iris such as redness, anterior
synechia, or exudate in the anterior chamber. The shape of the
iris and pupil should be uniform and round.
112
The conjunctiva is a mucous membrane. It should be light pink
in color and free of any redness, swelling, or exudate.
113
The eye has been removed from the skull showing the full
extent of the orbit.
114
The ears in the bird are simple ostea, with no external pinna.
The openings should be free of swelling, exudate, or other
material.
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115
The comb and wattles are outgrowths of skin that are highly
vascularized, making them a useful way to assess the bird's
overall health. They are normally bright red but their color willquickly fade after death. However, they should remain firm and
uniform on palpation. look for abnormalities such as edema,
petechiae, necrosis, cyanosis, papules and ulcers.
116
The infraorbital sinuses are triangular-shaped cavities, locatedrostroventral to the eyes. The sinuses are air-filled lumens, with
one opening into the nasal cavity and the other into the caudal
nasal cavity.
117
As seen here, the legs bones of the should be straight andsymmetrical.
118
The leg bones should be straight and symmetrical. Palpate the
bones for fractures and calluses and the joints for swelling or
effusion. Flex and extend all the joints to assess range ofmotion, keeping in mind the effects of rigor mortis.
119
The skin on the limbs is covered by scales that are normally
dry, flat, and slightly overlapping. Some parasites live beneath
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the scales of the legs. Some infectious diseases can cause
keratinous outgrowths from this skin.
120
The skin on the limbs is covered by scales that are normally
dry, flat, and slightly overlapping. Some parasites live beneath
the scales of the legs. Some infectious diseases can cause
keratinous outgrowths from this skin.
121
Digital pads cover the plantar surface of the birds feet.
These pads are composed of thick skin and adipose tissue. In
the center of the foot, there is a large central metatarsal pad.
The pads should be soft, free of scabs, swellings, edema,
hemorrhages, or other lesions.
122
In the center of the foot, there is a large central metatarsal pad.
The pads should be soft, free of scabs, swellings, edema,
hemorrhages, or other lesions.
123
In birds housed on the floor, claws will normally come to a blunt
tapered end, as seen here. Claws may be somewhat sharper in
birds housed in cages. Curling or fraying claws are abnormal
findings.
124
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Birds have several types of feathers distributed across various
regions of their body including down, body feathers, and flight
feathers. Look for abnormalities in feather conformation such as
warping or malformed barbs and barbules.
Make note of any body regions that are missing feathers.
Feathers are normally distributed along tracks on the body,
called pterylae. These tracks are interspersed with featherless
tracts called apteria. Keep in mind, that not all feather loss is
abnormal. Seasonal feather molting is a normal physiologic
process. Additionally, females who are incubating eggs may
have an area on their abdomen lacking feathers, called the
brood patch. In non-pathologic feather loss, the skin will appear
healthy. In cases of pathologic feather loss, such as excessive
feather picking by the bird, or its cage mates, the skin will be
traumatized.
125
This image shows a typical down feather.
126
The skin in the chicken is normally very thin and the amount of
pigment varies from pink to black, depending on the coloration
of the bird. The skin should be free of exudate and have little or
no scale. Look for any lesions or evidence of ectoparasites.
127
Feathers are normally distributed along tracks on the body,
known as pterylae, seen here. These tracks are interspersed
with featherless areas called apteria. Patches of feather lossmay be due to normal physiologic processes, such as seasonal
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molting. Pathologic feather loss can result from trauma and
infection and is associated with skin lesions.
128
Pay attention to the feather sheath, the area where the feather
emerges from the follicle. Swelling in this location can be
indicative of several types of infection.
129
Pay attention to the feather sheath, the area where the feather
emerges from the follicle. Swelling in this location can be
indicative of several types of infection.
130
The uropygial, or preen gland, is located dorsal to the base ofthe tail. This cutaneous gland secretes an oily substance that
birds spread over their feathers during preening. These
secretions help maintain normal healthy feathers.
131
The body of the gland is located subcutaneously and its twolobes can sometimes be visualized beneath the skin, as seen
here. The glands duct exits externally through a small
papilla. Infected glands may result in swelling and reddening of
the surrounding skin.
132
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Cartilage should be smooth, shiny, and white with a slightly blue
tinge, as seen here. Look for degenerative changes and
roughed, discolored areas.
133
In a young bird, cut the long bone of the leg lengthwise to
examine the epiphysis. Nutrient or mineral deficiencies can lead
to poor mineralization of the bone. Look for widening of the
epiphyseal plate or generalized hypoplasia of the bone.