regi.tankonyvtar.hu€¦ · iii Created by XMLmind XSL-FO Converter. Tartalom Tárgymutató

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Integrated Crop Production II.

Pepó, Péter

Csajbók, József

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Integrated Crop Production II. Pepó, Péter Csajbók, József

TÁMOP-4.1.2.A/1-11/1-2011-0009

University of Debrecen, Service Sciences Methodology Centre

Debrecen, 2013.

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Tartalom

Tárgymutató ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1. Week 1. INTEGRATED RICE PRODUCTION I. ......................................................................... 2

1. Origin of rice ........................................................................................................................ 4 2. Uses of rice ........................................................................................................................... 4 3. Taxonomical classification of rice ....................................................................................... 5 4. Most important rice types: ................................................................................................... 6 5. Morphology of rice .............................................................................................................. 6 6. Growth stages of rice ......................................................................................................... 10 7. Climatic conditions ............................................................................................................ 10 8. Soil conditions .................................................................................................................... 11 9. Questions related to integrated rice production .................................................................. 11

2. Week 2. INTEGRATED RICE PRODUCTION II. ..................................................................... 12 1. Crop rotation of rice ........................................................................................................... 12 2. Soil preparation .................................................................................................................. 12 3. Nutrient supply of rice ....................................................................................................... 12 4. Irrigation ............................................................................................................................ 13 5. Planting of rice ................................................................................................................... 13 6. Sowing of rice .................................................................................................................... 14 7. Diseases of rice .................................................................................................................. 15 8. Diseases of rice .................................................................................................................. 15 9. Pests of rice ........................................................................................................................ 16 10. Weeds and weed control .................................................................................................. 17 11. Harvesting ........................................................................................................................ 18 12. Physical characteristics of milled rice .............................................................................. 19 13. Questions related to integrated rice production ................................................................ 19

3. Week 3. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER CEREALS (PROSO MILLET, BUCKWHEAT)

........................................................................................................................................................... 20 1. Origin and significance of proso millet .............................................................................. 20 2. Significance of proso millet ............................................................................................... 20 3. Taxonomical classification of proso millet ........................................................................ 21 4. Morphology of proso millet ............................................................................................... 22 5. Soil conditions .................................................................................................................... 22 6. Climatic conditions ............................................................................................................ 23 7. The main features of the millet varieties: ........................................................................... 23 8. Crop rotation of proso millet .............................................................................................. 23 9. Nutrient supply ................................................................................................................... 23 10. Soil preparation ................................................................................................................ 24 11. Sowing of proso millet ..................................................................................................... 24 12. Diseases of proso millet ................................................................................................... 25 13. Pests of millet ................................................................................................................... 25 14. Weeds and weed control of millet .................................................................................... 26 15. Harvesting ........................................................................................................................ 26 16. Buckwheat production ..................................................................................................... 27 17. Uses of buckwheat ........................................................................................................... 27 18. Taxonomical classification of buckwheat ........................................................................ 29 19. Soil conditions of buckwheat ........................................................................................... 29 20. Climatic conditions .......................................................................................................... 29 21. Crop rotation .................................................................................................................... 30 22. Soil preparation ................................................................................................................ 30 23. Nutrient supply ................................................................................................................. 31 24. Sowing of buckwheat ....................................................................................................... 31 25. Plant protection ............................................................................................................... 32 26. Harvesting ........................................................................................................................ 32 27. Questions related to integrated production of other cereals (proso millet, buckwheat) ... 32

4. Week 4. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER CEREALS (AMARANTH, QUINOA) . 33 1. Origin of amaranth .............................................................................................................. 33


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2. Taxonomical classification of amaranth ............................................................................. 33 3. Uses of amaranth ................................................................................................................ 33 4. Morphology of amaranth .................................................................................................... 34 5. Nutrient content of amaranth seeds ..................................................................................... 34 6. Climatic conditions of amaranth ........................................................................................ 35 7. Soil conditions of amaranth ............................................................................................... 35 8. Nutrient supply of amaranth ............................................................................................... 36 9. Sowing of amaranth ........................................................................................................... 36 10. Diseases of amaranth ........................................................................................................ 36 11. Pests of amaranth ............................................................................................................. 37 12. Weeds and weed control of amaranth .............................................................................. 37 13. Harvesting of amaranth .................................................................................................... 37 14. Quinoa .............................................................................................................................. 38 15. Taxonomical classification of quinoa ............................................................................... 38 16. Uses of quinoa .................................................................................................................. 39 17. Morphology of quinoa ...................................................................................................... 40 18. Nutrient content of quinoa seeds ....................................................................................... 40 19. Climatic conditions of quinoa .......................................................................................... 41 20. Soil conditions of quinoa ................................................................................................. 41 21. Nutrient supply of quinoa ................................................................................................. 41 22. Sowing of quinoa ............................................................................................................. 42 23. Diseases of quinoa ............................................................................................................ 42 24. Pests of quinoa ................................................................................................................. 43 25. Weeds and weed control of quinoa .................................................................................. 43 26. Harvesting of quinoa ........................................................................................................ 43 27. Questions related to integrated production of other cereals (amaranth, quinoa) .............. 44

5. Week 5. INTEGRATED PEA PRODUCTION ............................................................................ 45 1. Origin of pea ...................................................................................................................... 45 2. Taxonomical classification of peas .................................................................................... 45 3. Uses of pea ......................................................................................................................... 45 4. Morphological types of pea ................................................................................................ 45 5. Morphology of pea ............................................................................................................. 46 6. Chemical composition of dry pea seeds ............................................................................. 48 7. Development stages of pea ................................................................................................. 50 8. Key for development stages of pea (Knot, 1987) ............................................................... 50 9. Climatic conditions ............................................................................................................ 51 10. Soil conditions .................................................................................................................. 52 11. Crop rotation of pea ......................................................................................................... 52 12. Soil preparation ................................................................................................................ 52 13. Nutrient supplyof pea ....................................................................................................... 53 14. Features expected from pea varieties ............................................................................... 53 15. Sowing of pea ................................................................................................................... 53 16. Diseases of pea ................................................................................................................. 54 17. Pests of the pea ................................................................................................................. 55 18. Weeds and weed control of pea ........................................................................................ 57 19. Harvesting ........................................................................................................................ 58 20. Questions related to integrated pea production ................................................................ 58

6. Week 6. INTEGRATED SOYBEAN PRODUCTION ................................................................ 59 1. Significance of soybean ..................................................................................................... 59 2. Chemical composition of soybean seeds ............................................................................ 59 3. Morphology of soybean ..................................................................................................... 60 4. Development stages of soybean ......................................................................................... 62 5. Features expected from varieties ........................................................................................ 64 6. Soil conditions of soybean ................................................................................................. 66 7. Climatic conditions of soybean .......................................................................................... 66 8. Crop rotation ...................................................................................................................... 67 9. Soil preparation .................................................................................................................. 67 10. Nutrient supply of soybean .............................................................................................. 68 11. Sowing of soybean ........................................................................................................... 68 12. Diseases of soybean ......................................................................................................... 68


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13. Pests of soybean ............................................................................................................... 70 14. Weeds and weed control of soybean ................................................................................ 71 15. Irrigation of soybean ........................................................................................................ 71 16. Harvesting of soybean ...................................................................................................... 72 17. Question s related to the integrated soybean production .................................................. 74

7. Week 8. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER PULSES (CHICKPEA, BEANS) .......... 75 1. Bean production ................................................................................................................. 75 2. Uses of bean ....................................................................................................................... 75 3. Taxonomical classification of the beans ............................................................................ 75 4. Morphology of bean ........................................................................................................... 76 5. Nutrient content of dry bean seed ...................................................................................... 77 6. Climatic conditions of bean ............................................................................................... 78 7. Soil conditions of bean ....................................................................................................... 78 8. Crop rotation of bean ......................................................................................................... 79 9. Soil preparation .................................................................................................................. 79 10. Nutrient supply ................................................................................................................. 79 11. Sowing of bean ................................................................................................................. 80 12. Diseases of bean ............................................................................................................... 80 13. Pests of bean ..................................................................................................................... 81 14. Weeds and weed control .................................................................................................. 82 15. Harvesting of dry bean ..................................................................................................... 82 16. Chickpea production ........................................................................................................ 82 17. Uses of chickpea .............................................................................................................. 82 18. Taxonomical classification of the chickpea ..................................................................... 83 19. Nutrient content of chickpea seed .................................................................................... 83 20. Climatic conditions of chickpea ....................................................................................... 84 21. Soil conditions of chickpea .............................................................................................. 84 22. Crop rotation of chickpea ................................................................................................. 85 23. Nutrient supply of chickpea ............................................................................................. 85 24. Sowing of chickpea .......................................................................................................... 85 25. Diseases of chickpea ........................................................................................................ 85 26. Pests of chickpea .............................................................................................................. 86 27. Weeds and weed control .................................................................................................. 87 28. Harvesting of chickpea ..................................................................................................... 87 29. Questions related to the integrated production of other pulses (bean, chickpea) ............. 87

8. Week 9. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER PULSES (FABABEAN, LUPINS) ........ 88 1. Fababean ............................................................................................................................ 88 2. Uses of fababean ................................................................................................................ 88 3. Taxonomical classification of fababean ............................................................................. 88 4. Chemical composition of fababean seeds .......................................................................... 88 5. Climatic conditions of fababean ......................................................................................... 89 6. Soil conditions of fababean ................................................................................................ 89 7. Crop rotation of fababean ................................................................................................... 89 8. Soil preparation .................................................................................................................. 90 9. Nutrient supply ................................................................................................................... 90 10. Sowing of fababean .......................................................................................................... 90 11. Diseases of fababean ........................................................................................................ 91 12. Pests of fababean .............................................................................................................. 91 13. Weeds and weed control .................................................................................................. 92 14. Harvesting of fababean .................................................................................................... 93 15. Lupins .............................................................................................................................. 93 16. Uses of lupins ................................................................................................................... 93 17. Taxonomical classification of the lupins .......................................................................... 94 18. Morphology of lupins ....................................................................................................... 94 19. Chemical composition of lupin seeds ............................................................................... 95 20. Climatic conditions of lupins ........................................................................................... 95 21. Soil conditions of lupins ................................................................................................... 96 22. Crop rotation of lupins ..................................................................................................... 96 23. Soil preparation ................................................................................................................ 96 24. Nutrient supply of lupins .................................................................................................. 96


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25. Sowing of lupins .............................................................................................................. 97 26. Diseases of lupins ............................................................................................................. 97 27. Pests of lupins .................................................................................................................. 98 28. Weeds and weed control .................................................................................................. 98 29. Harvesting ........................................................................................................................ 99 30. Questions related to the integrated production of other pulses (fababean, lupins) ........... 99

9. Week 10. INTEGRATED SUNFLOWER PRODUCTION I. .................................................... 100 1. General characteristics of oil plant production .................................................................. 100 2. The importance of sunflower production .......................................................................... 101 3. Botany and plant physiology of sunflower ........................................................................ 105 4. The biological bases of sunflower production ................................................................... 106 5. The ecological conditions of sunflower production .......................................................... 107 6. The elements of the production technology of sunflower ................................................. 108 7. Nutrient supply .................................................................................................................. 109 8. Questions related to integrated sunflower production ....................................................... 114

10. Week 11. INTEGRATED SUNFLOWER PRODUCTION II. ................................................ 116 1. Sowing technology ............................................................................................................ 116 2. Plant protection ................................................................................................................. 117 3. Harvesting ......................................................................................................................... 124 4. Questions related to integrated sunflower production ....................................................... 125

11. Week 12. INTEGRATED RAPE PRODUCTION I. ................................................................ 126 1. The importance of oilseed rape production ....................................................................... 126 2. Botanical and physiological characteristics ...................................................................... 127 3. Biological bases ................................................................................................................ 128 4. Ecological conditions ........................................................................................................ 130 5. Agrotechnical elements ..................................................................................................... 131 6. Nutrient supply .................................................................................................................. 133 7. Questions related to integrated rape production ................................................................ 137

12. Week 13. INTEGRATED RAPE PRODUCTION II. .............................................................. 138 1. Sowing technology ............................................................................................................ 138 2. Regulator use ..................................................................................................................... 139 3. Plant protection ................................................................................................................. 139 4. Harvesting ......................................................................................................................... 145 5. Questions related to integrated rape production ................................................................ 146

13. Week 14. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER OILCROPS (OIL PALM, PEANUT) 148 1. Oilpalm ............................................................................................................................ 148 2. Taxonomical classification of oilpalm ............................................................................. 148 3. Uses of oilpalm ................................................................................................................ 149 4. Climatic conditions of oilpalm ......................................................................................... 149 5. Soil conditions of oilpalm ................................................................................................ 149 6. Nutrient supply of oilpalm ............................................................................................... 150 7. Sowing of oilpalm ............................................................................................................ 150 8. Diseases of oilpalm .......................................................................................................... 150 9. Pests of oilpalm ................................................................................................................ 151 10. Harvesting oilpalm fruits ................................................................................................ 151 11. Peanut ............................................................................................................................. 151 12. Uses of peanut ................................................................................................................ 152 13. Taxonomical classification of peanut ............................................................................. 152 14. Nutrient content of the shelled peanut seed ..................................................................... 152 15. Types of peanut .............................................................................................................. 153 16. Climatic conditions of peanut ........................................................................................ 153 17. Soil conditions of peanut ................................................................................................. 153 18. Crop rotation of peanut .................................................................................................. 153 19. Soil preparation of peanut .............................................................................................. 154 20. Nutrient supply of peanut ............................................................................................... 154 21. Sowing of peanut ........................................................................................................... 154 22. Diseases of peanut .......................................................................................................... 154 23. Pests of peanut .............................................................................................................. 155 24. Harvesting peanut ........................................................................................................... 156 25. Questions related to the integrated production of other oil crops (oilpalm and peanut) . 156


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14. Week 15. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER OILCROPS (LINSEED, POPPY

SEED,SESAME) ............................................................................................................................ 157 1. Linseed ............................................................................................................................. 157 2. Taxonomical classification of linseed .............................................................................. 157 3. Uses of linseed ................................................................................................................. 157 4. Chemical composition of linseed ..................................................................................... 158 5. Climatic conditions of linseed .......................................................................................... 158 6. Soil conditions of linseed ................................................................................................. 158 7. Crop rotation of linseed .................................................................................................... 158 8. Soil preparation of linseed ............................................................................................... 159 9. Nutrient supply of linseed ................................................................................................ 159 10. Sowing of linseed ........................................................................................................... 159 11. Diseases of linseed ......................................................................................................... 160 12. Pests of linseed ............................................................................................................... 161 13. Weed control ................................................................................................................... 161 14. Harvesting of linseed ...................................................................................................... 161 15. Poppy ............................................................................................................................. 161 16. Taxonomical classification of poppy ............................................................................. 162 17. Uses of poppyseed .......................................................................................................... 162 18. Nutrient content of poppyseed ....................................................................................... 162 19. Climatic conditions of poppy ......................................................................................... 162 20. Soil conditions of poppy ................................................................................................ 163 21. Crop rotation of poppy ................................................................................................... 163 22. Soil cultivation of poppy ................................................................................................ 163 23. Nutrient supply of poppyseed ........................................................................................ 163 24. Sowing of poppy ............................................................................................................ 163 25. Diseases of poppyseed ................................................................................................... 164 26. Pests of poppyseed ......................................................................................................... 164 27. Weed control ................................................................................................................... 165 28. Harvesting poppyseed .................................................................................................... 165 29. Sesame ........................................................................................................................... 165 30. Taxonomical classification of sesame ............................................................................ 165 31. Uses of sesame ............................................................................................................... 165 32. Nutrient content of sesame seed ..................................................................................... 166 33. Climatic conditions ........................................................................................................ 166 34. Soil conditions of sesame ............................................................................................... 167 35. Crop rotation of sesame ................................................................................................. 167 36. Seedbed preparation of sesame ...................................................................................... 167 37. Nutrient supply of sesame .............................................................................................. 167 38. Sowing of sesame ........................................................................................................... 167 39. Diseases of sesame ......................................................................................................... 168 40. Pests of sesame ............................................................................................................... 168 41. Harvesting sesame .......................................................................................................... 169 42. Questions related to integrated production of other oil crops (linseed, poppyseed, sesame) 169 43. References ....................................................................................................................... 169

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Az ábrák listája

1.1. Figure 1.Area of the rice in the main rice producer countries (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) ....... 2 1.2. Figure 2.The yield of the rice in the main rice producer countries (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) 2 1.3. Figure 3.Wild rice grains ............................................................................................................. 3 1.4. Figure 4.Vegetative organs of rice (Figure from IRRI) ............................................................... 7 1.5. Figure 5.Parts of a spikelet of rice Te-Tzu Chang, E.A. Bardenas (1965) .................................. 7 1.6. Figure 6.Panicles of rice .............................................................................................................. 8 1.7. Figure 7.Short grain rice .............................................................................................................. 9 1.8. Figure 8.Long grain rice .............................................................................................................. 9 1.9. Figure 9.Rice field in Hungary .................................................................................................... 9 2.1. Figure 10.Transplanting of rice seedlings (photo: IRRI) ........................................................... 13 2.2. Figure 11.Weedy rice field (Photo from IRRI) .......................................................................... 17 2.3. Figure 12.Half-tracked combine in rice field ............................................................................. 18 3.1. Figure 13.Proso millet field ....................................................................................................... 21 3.2. Figure 14.Grains of red proso millet .......................................................................................... 22 3.3. Figure 15.Buckwheat field in flowering stage ........................................................................... 27 3.4. Figure 16.Buckwheat plants ...................................................................................................... 28 3.5. Figure 17.Achenes of buckwheat ............................................................................................... 30 4.1. Figure 18. Amaranth ................................................................................................................. 34 4.2. Figure 19.Amaranthus cruentus ................................................................................................. 35 4.3. Figure 20.The quinoa producers in the world (2010, FAOSTAT Database) ............................. 38 4.4. Figure 21.The yield of quinoa producers (2010, FAOSTAT Database) .................................... 38 4.5. Figure 22.Quinoa plant (photo: Markus Hagenlocher) ............................................................. 39 5.1. Figure 23.The papillionaceous flower of pea ............................................................................ 47 5.2. Figure 24.Garden pea ................................................................................................................. 47 5.3. Figure 25.Leafless type pea plant .............................................................................................. 48 5.4. Figure 26.Tendrils of leafless type pea ...................................................................................... 49 5.5. Figure 27.Pea in ripe stage ......................................................................................................... 49 5.6. Figure 28.Powdery mildew on pea ............................................................................................ 54 5.7. Figure 29.Damage of pea moth .................................................................................................. 56 5.8. Figure 30.Pea bruchid and the exit holes ................................................................................... 56 5.9. Figure 31.Adult pea bruchid ...................................................................................................... 56 6.1. Figure 32.The compound leaf of the soybean ............................................................................ 60 6.2. Figure 33.Flowers of the soybean .............................................................................................. 61 6.3. Figure 34.Pods of soybean ......................................................................................................... 61 6.4. Figure 35.Soybean in ripe stage ................................................................................................. 64 6.5. Figure 36.Processing scheme of soybean ................................................................................. 73 7.1. Figure 37.The main bean producers of the world (Faostat database, 2010) .............................. 75 7.2. Figure 38.The yield of main bean producers of the world (Faostat database, 2010) ................. 76 7.3. Figure 39.Bean ........................................................................................................................... 77 7.4. Figure 40.Seeds of speckled bean variety .................................................................................. 78 7.5. Figure 41.Seeds of Hungarian liver bean variety ....................................................................... 78 7.6. Figure 42.Chickpea with developing pods ................................................................................. 83 7.7. Figure 43.Flower of chickpea .................................................................................................... 83 7.8. Figure 44.Chickpea seeds .......................................................................................................... 84 8.1. Figure 45.Fababean plant in flowering ...................................................................................... 89 8.2. Figure 46.Fababean pods .......................................................................................................... 89 8.3. Figure 47.The main lupin producers of the world (Faostat Database, 2010) ............................. 93 8.4. Figure 48.The yield of the main lupin producers (Faostat Database, 2010) .............................. 94 8.5. Figure 49.Young white lupin plant ............................................................................................ 95 8.6. Figure 50.Lupin pods ................................................................................................................. 96 9.1. Figure 51. ................................................................................................................................. 101 9.2. Figure 52. ................................................................................................................................. 102 9.3. Figure 53. ................................................................................................................................. 103 9.4. Figure 54. ................................................................................................................................. 103 9.5. Figure 55. ................................................................................................................................. 103 9.6. Table 21. .................................................................................................................................. 104


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9.7. Figure 56. ................................................................................................................................. 104 9.8. Figure 57. ................................................................................................................................. 105 9.9. Table 22. .................................................................................................................................. 106 9.10. Table 23. ................................................................................................................................ 107 9.11. Figure 58. ............................................................................................................................... 109 9.12. Figure 59. ............................................................................................................................... 110 9.13. Figure 60. ............................................................................................................................... 111 9.14. Figure 61. ............................................................................................................................... 111 9.15. Figure 62. ............................................................................................................................... 112 9.16. Figure 63. ............................................................................................................................... 112 9.17. Figure 64. ............................................................................................................................... 113 9.18. Figure 65. ............................................................................................................................... 113 9.19. Figure 66. ............................................................................................................................... 114 10.1. Figure 67. ............................................................................................................................... 116 10.2. Figure 68. ............................................................................................................................... 117 10.3. Figure 69. ............................................................................................................................... 118 10.4. Figure 70. ............................................................................................................................... 119 10.5. Figure 71. ............................................................................................................................... 119 10.6. Figure 72. ............................................................................................................................... 119 10.7. Figure 73. ............................................................................................................................... 120 10.8. Figure 74. ............................................................................................................................... 120 10.9. Figure 75. ............................................................................................................................... 120 10.10. Figure 76. ............................................................................................................................. 121 10.11. Figure 77. ............................................................................................................................. 121 10.12. Figure 78. ............................................................................................................................. 124 10.13. Figure 79. ............................................................................................................................. 124 11.1. Figure 80. ............................................................................................................................... 126 11.2. Figure 81. ............................................................................................................................... 127 11.3. Figure 82. ............................................................................................................................... 134 11.4. Figure 83. ............................................................................................................................... 134 11.5. Figure 84. ............................................................................................................................... 134 11.6. Figure 85. ............................................................................................................................... 135 11.7. Figure 86. ............................................................................................................................... 135 12.1. Figure 87. ............................................................................................................................... 140 12.2. Figure 88. ............................................................................................................................... 140 12.3. Figure 89. ............................................................................................................................... 141 12.4. Figure 90. ............................................................................................................................... 141 12.5. Figure 91. ............................................................................................................................... 142 12.6. Figure 92. ............................................................................................................................... 142 12.7. Figure 93. ............................................................................................................................... 143 12.8. Figure 94. ............................................................................................................................... 143 12.9. Figure 95. ............................................................................................................................... 143 12.10. Figure 96 .............................................................................................................................. 143 12.11. Figure 97. ............................................................................................................................. 144 12.12. Figure 98. ............................................................................................................................. 144 12.13. Figure 99. ............................................................................................................................. 146 13.1. Figure 100.Oil crops production of the world (Faostat database, 2010) ................................ 148 13.2. Figure 101.Oilpalm (photo: Bongoman, Ghana) ................................................................... 149 13.3. Figure 102.Peanut pods ......................................................................................................... 152 14.1. Figure 103.Linseed plants in flowering ................................................................................. 158 14.2. Figure 104.Poppy flower ....................................................................................................... 162 14.3. Figure 105.Sesame plant in bloom ........................................................................................ 166 14.4. Figure 106.Sesame seeds ....................................................................................................... 166

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A táblázatok listája

1.1. Table 1.Area and yield of rice in Hungary 1947-2012. ............................................................... 3 1.2. Table 2.Area and yield of wild rice (Zizania aquatica) in Hungary, 2007-2012 ......................... 4 1.3. Table 3.Morphological and physiological features of the rice subspecies ................................... 5 1.4. Table 4.Chemical composition of rice grain ................................................................................ 8 2.1. Table 5.Sowing data of rice ....................................................................................................... 14 3.1. Table 6.Sowing data of proso millet .......................................................................................... 24 3.2. Table 7.Chemical composition of buckwheat seed .................................................................... 28 3.3. Table 8.Sowing data of buckwheat ............................................................................................ 31 4.1. Table 9.Sowing data of amaranths ............................................................................................. 36 4.2. Table 10.Mineral composition and vitamin concentrations in quinoa and some cereals (Koziol 1992)

40 4.3. Table 11.Sowing data of quinoa ................................................................................................ 42 5.1. Table 12.Sowing data of pea ...................................................................................................... 54 6.1. Table 13.Listed soybean varieties in Hungary (2012) ............................................................... 65 6.2. Table 14.Vegetation period of soybean varieties ....................................................................... 66 6.3. Table 15.Sowing data of soybean .............................................................................................. 68 6.4. Table 16.Water use of soybean .................................................................................................. 72 7.1. Table 17.Sowing data of bean .................................................................................................... 80 7.2. Table 18.Sowing data of chickpea ............................................................................................. 85 8.1. Table 19.Sowing data of fababean ............................................................................................. 91 8.2. Table 20.Sowing data of lupins ................................................................................................. 97 11.1. Table 24. ................................................................................................................................ 129 13.1. Table 25.The oilpalm and peanut production of the world (2010 Faostat Database) ............ 148 13.2. Table 26.Sowing data of peanut ............................................................................................ 154 14.1. Table 27.The linseed, poppyseed and sesame production area in the world (2010) .............. 157 14.2. Table 28.Sowing data of linseed ............................................................................................ 160 14.3. Table 29.Sowing data of poppy ............................................................................................. 164 14.4. Table 30.Sowing data of sesame ............................................................................................ 167

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Tárgymutató


1. fejezet - Week 1. INTEGRATED RICE PRODUCTION I.

Rice is the staple food for more than 2.5 billion people in the world. The producing area of rice covering about 9

% of the earth's arable land, it exceeds 164 million hectares (FAOSTAT, 2011). The largest amount (85 %) of

the rice that is produced in the world is used for direct human consumption. More than 90 % of rice is grown

and consumed in Asia.

1.1. ábra - Figure 1.Area of the rice in the main rice producer countries (FAOSTAT

Database, 2010)

1.2. ábra - Figure 2.The yield of the rice in the main rice producer countries (FAOSTAT

Database, 2010)

Week 1. INTEGRATED RICE

PRODUCTION I.


1.1. táblázat - Table 1.Area and yield of rice in Hungary 1947-2012.

Year Area (ha) Yield (t/ha) Year Area (ha) Yield (t/ha)

1947-50 11 519 2.50 2001-2005 2 568 3.19

1951-60 33 390 1.98 2006 2 103 4.65

1961-65 19 119 1.86 2007 2 560 4.34

1966-70 21 130 1.97 2008 2 200 4.55

1971-75 27 356 2.36 2009 2 710 4.43

1976-80 23 168 1.38 2010 1 876 4.36

1981-85 12 593 3.25 2011 2 534 3.58

1986-90 12 336 3.27 2012 2 959 3.64

1991-95 5 477 2.88

1996-2000 2 723 2.98

1.3. ábra - Figure 3.Wild rice grains


PRODUCTION I.


1.2. táblázat - Table 2.Area and yield of wild rice (Zizania aquatica) in Hungary, 2007-

2012

Year Area (ha) Yield (t/ha)

2007 568 1.10

2008 699 2.00

2009 1 040 2.00

2010 800 1.30

2011 975 1.82

2012 783 1.45

1. Origin of rice

Rice was domesticated in South-East Asia probably 7,000 years ago.

Evidences of early production:

China: 5,000 B.C.

Thailand: 4,500 B.C.

Cambodia, southern India and Vietnam: 3,500-4,000 B.C.

Middle East and Mediterranean Europe: 800 B.C.

North America: end of XVIIth century

The greatest genetical variability can be found in the monsoon areas of Asia (East-India, Burma, Thailand, Laos,

North-Vietnam and South-China). It is believed that Alexander the Great first brought rice to Europe after his

conquest of India in 320 BC. The spreading of rice in the Mediterranean region thanks mainly to the Arabs

(Moors).

2. Uses of rice

Food (the main use): important staple food especially in Asia (Asia 100 kg/capita/year, in Hungary 6

kg/capita/year). While the rice flour does not contain gluten, so it is suitable for a gluten-free diet.

Alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages: Arrak, sake (rice wine), amazake, horchata, rice milk, sikhye.

Wax and oil from the germ and bran: Melting point of the wax is high, 75-79 °C. Iodine number: 11-17. It is

used in paper coatings, textiles, fruit and vegetable coatings, pharmaceuticals, candles, electric insulation, textile

and leather waterproofing, printing inks, lubricants, crayons, adhesives, chewing gum and cosmetics.


PRODUCTION I.


Straw: Can be used as animal bedding. The rice straw is used as environmental friendly building material in

Australia. It can also be used to make paper (ricepaper).

Rice husks: are used in 3 main ways. The raw husks can be used for animal bedding, growing seedlings in

horticultural production or improving mulch for gardens.

Husks can be used for producing heat by burning. The resulting ash is valuable for many industries, including

steel making, gardening and building.

The ground and processed husks can be used for stock feed, potting mixes and pet litter.

3. Taxonomical classification of rice

Kingdom: Plantae - Plants

Subkingdom: Tracheobionta - Vascular plants

Superdivision: Spermatophyta - Seed plants

Division: Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants

Class: Liliopsida - Monocotyledons

Subclass: Commelinidae

Order: Cyperales

Family: Poaceae - Grass family

Genus: Oryza (rice) Highly variable genus with great number of species (24).

The two main species are cultivated:

Oryza sativa L. (Asian rice) produced in Asia, America and Europe

Oryza glaberrima Steud. (African rice) produced in Africa

Chromosome number: 2n = 24.

Subspecies of rice:

Oryza sativa subsp. indica

long grain

lowland areas, mainly tropical Asia

Oryza sativa subsp. japonica

short grain, sticky

highlands, high elevations, drylands, also in temperate climate

Oryza sativa subsp. japonica is produced in Hungary.

Oryza sativa subsp. javanica

medium grain, produced only in Indonesia

1.3. táblázat - Table 3.Morphological and physiological features of the rice subspecies

indica japonica javanica


PRODUCTION I.


Broad, lightgreen leaves

Slender, somewhat flat grains

Profuse tillering

Tall plant stature

Mostly awnless

Thin and short hairs on lemma and

palea

Easy shattering

Soft plant tissues

Varying sensitivity to photoperiod

Narrow, dark green leaves

Short, roundish grains

Medium tillering

Short plant stature

Awnless to long awned

Dense and long hairs on lemma and

palea

Low shattering

Hard plant tissues

Varying sensitivity to photoperiod

Broad, stiff, light green leaves

Broad, thick grains

Low tillering

Tall plant stature

Awnless or long awned

Long hairs on lemma and palea

Low shattering

Hard plant tissues

Low sensitivity to photoperiod

4. Most important rice types:

Basmati rice: long grain rice, aromatic, fragrant and slender, and non-glutinous, non sticky, originated from

India.

Jasmine rice: long-grain white rice, with a delicate Jasmine fragrance, popular in Thailand.

Black japonica: aromatic rice with dark black bran, minimally processed takes 45 to 50 minutes to prepare.

Arborio rice: short-grain rice, traditionally grown in Italy, used to make risotto; it has high starch content and

creamy texture.

5. Morphology of rice

Roots

The root system of the rice is fibrous. The main root types are the seminal roots and the adventitious roots.

Seminal roots:

1. primary (radicle): short lived and persist only for a short time after germination

2. secondary: sparsely branched

Seminal roots are later replaced by the secondary adventitious roots system.

Secondary adventitious roots:

This type of roots grows from the underground nodes of the young culms in tillering period. They are freely

branched and 70-80 % of them are located in the upper 15 cm layer of the soil. In floating varieties, fine

branched roots form from the higher nodes on the culm below the water surface.

Culm:

Culm is a jointed stem, is made up of a series of solid nodes and hollow internodes. It is also called straw. The

internodes vary in cross-sectional dimension, the lower ones are larger in diameter and thicker, the upper ones

are thinner. The culm is 60-150 cm high (floating rice varieties grow up to 7 m long).

Rice plant has good tillering characteristics. There are primary, secondary, tertially tillers. Tillers arising from

the main culm are the primary tillers. The primary tillers originate from the lowermost nodes and give rise to

secondary tillers. The secondary tillers give rise to tertiary tillers.


PRODUCTION I.


1.4. ábra - Figure 4.Vegetative organs of rice (Figure from IRRI)

Leaves:

The leaves are borne on the culm, one at each node, generally 9-18 leaves. The main culm bears the largest

number of leaves.

Leaf parts are: sheath, leaf blade, ligule and auricules. Sheath envelops the culm above the node in varying

length. The blades are generally flat and sessile, have parallel veins.

Flagleaf the uppermost leaf on the culm, below the inflorescence, differs from the other leaves in length and

shape.

Inflorescence:

The inflorescence of the rice is panicle. The panicle is borne on the uppermost internode of the culm. The

terminal shoot of a rice plant is a determinate inflorescence.

Varieties differ greatly in the length, shape, and angle of the primary branches, and in the weight and density

(number of spikelets per unit of length) of the panicle.

The panicle axis (rachis) is the main axis of the inflorescence.

The panicle consists of spikelets. The spikelets are connected to the branched panicle. The spikelet consists of

the two sterile lemmas, the rachilla and the floret. A floret includes the lemma, palea and the enclosed flower.

The lemma is the larger, hardened, 5-nerved bract which partly envelops the smaller, 3-nerved palea. The

lemma bears a tiny, filiform, awn.

The spikelets have three flowers; two of them are sterile, and reduced.

The rice is a self pollinating plant.

1.5. ábra - Figure 5.Parts of a spikelet of rice Te-Tzu Chang, E.A. Bardenas (1965)


PRODUCTION I.


Fruit:

The rice fruit is a caryopsis in which the seed coat firmly adheres to the pericarp, so the single seed is fused with

the wall of the ripened ovary, forming a seed-like grain.

The length of the caryopsis is 5-12 mm, its thickness 2-3 mm. It has starchy endosperm, consisting largely of

starch granules embedded in proteinaceous matrix.

The endosperm also contains sugar, fat and fiber. The colour of the grain can be white, brown, black, purple and

red. The lemma and the palea are firmly adhered to the grain; in consequence the rice must be dehulled before

using. The dehulled rice grains are called brown rice because of the brownish pericarp.

1.4. táblázat - Table 4.Chemical composition of rice grain

White rice Brown rice

Carbohydrates 75-78 % 78-79 %

Protein 7-8 % 8-10 %

Fat 0.6-1 % 1.8-2.0 %

Minerals 0.5-0.7 % 0.8-1.0 %

1.6. ábra - Figure 6.Panicles of rice


PRODUCTION I.


1.7. ábra - Figure 7.Short grain rice

1.8. ábra - Figure 8.Long grain rice

1.9. ábra - Figure 9.Rice field in Hungary


PRODUCTION I.


6. Growth stages of rice

Germinating (0-10th days): The coleoptile emerges from the germinating embryo, the radicle grows.

Seedling (10-20th days): Develop the first few leaves and the seminal and lateral roots. Varieties differ greatly

in seedling vigor and developing rate. Low temperature or long daylength can increase its duration.

Tillering (20-58th days): The tillering stage starts with the appearance of the first tiller from the axillary bud in

one of the lowermost nodes of the culm. The increase in tiller number continues as a sigmoid curve until the

maximum tiller number is reached.

Panicle initiation (58-62nd days): This stage generally starts after the maximum tiller number is reached with

initiation of the panicle primordium of microscopic dimensions in the main culm. Then the young panicle

increases its size.

Booting (heading) (62-69th days): Panicle emerges from the upper leaf sheath of the rapidly elongating culm.

The date of booting often differs between the tillers of one plant but also can differ significantly among plants of

the rice field.

Flowering (70-84th days): Rice is most sensitive to stresses such as low and high temperatures, or drought. The

number of days is determined genetically, and there are the same in most of varieties.

Fruiting (development of fruit) (84-100th days): The length of the period is predominantly determined by the

temperature. The high and low temperatures result low kernel mass. The water content of the grains is about 58

% at the beginning of grain filling period, and then it decreases.

Ripening (100-130th days*): The leaves become senescent and turn yellowish in an ascending order. The

ripening stages of rice: milk, dough, maturity, over-ripe. Biological ripe is at 25 % kernel moisture.

* days after sowing

7. Climatic conditions

Rice can be grown under wide range of agroclimatic conditions, due to the wide genetical variation. It is

produced between 55° latitude north and 35° latitude south latitudes, in more than 120 countries. The rice

growing area ranges from sea level to altitudes of 2 500 m or even higher. It grows under sub-merged

conditions.

The growing period of rice is 130-150 days long.


PRODUCTION I.


Heat Unit (Growth Degree Days): European cultivars: (1200) – 1400 – (1500) °C

tropical cultivars: 1700-1950 °C

Rice requires 1200-1500 hours sunshine.

Assimilation base temperature: 10 °C

Minimum temperature:

Germination: 12-14 °C,

Tillering: 16-18 °C,

Flowering: 20-22 °C

Optimal:

Flowering: 30-33 °C

Cool weather cause fertility problems.

Ripening: above 20 °C

It prefers warm, sunny climate in ripening stage.

8. Soil conditions

It is important to be a low-water-permeable layer in the soil, 0.5-1.5 m below the surface, because the low loss

of water. The main reason for selecting heavy soils for rice fields is the low water loss by seepage.

Soil salinity should be below 4 dS/m, and Na-ion concentration below 0.1 %.

Rice prefers slightly acidic soils (pH: 5.0 - 6.5), but can be grown on soils with pH range between from 4.5 to

8.5.

Good soils for rice production are heavy soils: sodic and alkaline soils, meadow soils, alluvial soils.

The size of a rice farm in Hungary is 100-150 ha generally, but in the World 0.2-5 ha.

Rice is grown in bounded fields for good water management. A precise and effective water distribution system

is essential. Rice fields need leveling before production. Laser-guided ground leveling machines (Nowadays

they also have GPS guiding system.) can be used to level the paddocks.

9. Questions related to integrated rice production

1. What is the significance of rice?

2. What are the development stages of rice?

3. Explain the climatic conditions of the rice production!

4. What soil types are suitable for rice production?


2. fejezet - Week 2. INTEGRATED RICE PRODUCTION II.

1. Crop rotation of rice

Rice has special crop rotation because of the flooded production and the structure of the rice fields.

Generally only 60-65 % of the rice farm is used for rice production in a year. In the remaining 35-40 % there is

other crop or fallow.

Rice can tolerate continuous growing on the same land, but its yields significantly decreases comparing to the

rotated production.

Growing for 3-5 years after itself and then rotate could be a good compromising method in the effective

utilizing of rice farms.

After 3-5 years rice growing the soil needs one year fallow-break for aeration. In the following year alfalfa or

red clover (or pasture grasses) should be sown. The alfalfa or red clover can be followed by cereals and then rice

again. This kind of rotation can keep the physical structure and chemical property of the soil in good condition

and suppress the aquatic weeds.

2. Soil preparation

Soil preparation typically involves plowing, harrowing, and leveling.

It is important repairing the leveling of the rice field before the seeding or planting. The water may stagnate in

the depressions whereas higher parts may fall dry, when the field is not level. The uneven surface results

difference in plant growth and development, and reduces the yield.

The soil preparation typically involves plowing or rotovating and harrowing. The aeration of the soil is essential

between two rice crops.

• ploughing 20-22 cm

• combined preparation

• seedbed preparation (combinator)

Puddling: The majority of Asian rice fields are flooded before tillage. The tillage of flooded soil is called as

puddling. Soil puddling destroys soil structure, which reduces seepage, percolation rates and, in consequence the

loss of water. Puddling is very efficient in clay soils that form deep cracks penetrating the plow pan at about 15

to 20 cm soil depth during the period of soil drying before land preparation. Large amounts of water are

consumed during land preparation of flooded soils because of the need to initially soak the dried soil, and to

keep the field continuously flooded.

3. Nutrient supply of rice

Fertilizer recommendations and practices vary greatly in the rice production regions. The soil characteristics,

seasonal conditions, the features of the variety and the intensity of the production are taken into consideration.

The fertilizer recommendations in Hungary are:

Specific nutrient demand of rice

Rice plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg grain +

straw:

N (NH4): 2.5 kg/100 kg


PRODUCTION II.


P2O5: 1.2 kg/100 kg

K2O: 3.2 kg/100 kg

Recommended nutrient doses:

N (NH4): 60 - 80 kg/ha

P2O5: 60 kg/ha

K2O: 40 - 50 kg/ha

In flooded rice fields, the soil is in anaerobic condition and the major form of nitrogen available to plants is

ammonium-ion. As the result of its adaptation rice plant prefers nitrogen uptaking in ammonium (NH4+)-ion

form. The efficiency of ammonium fertilizers is much higher than that of nitrate fertilizers in rice fields.

Nitrogen fertilizer dose should be applied in two or three splits in the growing season. It is generally

recommended to apply N in 1/3 basal, 1/3 at tillering, 1/3 at panicle initiation stage. The reason of the splitting is

to increase the efficiency of the nitrogen use.

The full rate of phosphorous and potassium fertilizer is generally recommended to be surface broadcast and

incorporated into the soil before sowing or planting.

4. Irrigation

The irrigation method of rice fields is flood irrigation.

First flood: 2 000-3 000 m3 /ha.

Water addition in the growing season: 8 800-13 000 m3 /ha.

Flood after chemical plant protection: 12 000-18 000 m3 /ha.

When the soil water content drops below saturation, most rice varieties develop symptoms of water stress.

It is important to eliminate water loss: seepage, percolation, surface run off and evaporation.

5. Planting of rice

Transplanting (or planting) is the most popular plant establishment technique in Asia (seedlings are transferred

from a seedbed to the wet field).

It requires less seed and it is also an effective method to control weeds. The disadvantage of this method is that

it requires lot of labour. Seedlings are grown in special nursery area for 20-80 days. Seedlings may be

transplanted to the wet field by either machine or hand.

2.1. ábra - Figure 10.Transplanting of rice seedlings (photo: IRRI)


PRODUCTION II.


6. Sowing of rice

Sowing into the soil (sometimes is called direct seeding):

This sowing method can be applied in case of good seedbed only.

Time: 2-3rd decades of April, when the soil temperature reach 12-14 °C.

Depth: 3-4 cm

Row distance is the generally applied row spacing in cereals, 12-15.4 cm.

Sowing rate: 5-6 million /ha (220-230 kg/ha seed)

Sowing to soil surface:

In case of dry, cloddy, bad seedbed

Time: usually in May

Seeds can be sown with sowing machine with lifted coulters.

Ringrollering is essential after sowing.

5-10 cm flood after seeding is essential for quick emergence.

Sowing into water:

Flooding 2-3 days before sowing (3-5 cm deep, 14-15 °C temperature water).

Broadcasting we can do with aircraft or fertilizer distributors (or by hand in small area).

The advance of using of pre-germinated seed is the quicker emergence.

2.1. táblázat - Table 5.Sowing data of rice

Data

Sowing into the soil: 2-3rd decades April


PRODUCTION II.


Sowing time:

Row distance:

Depth:

Sowing rate:

12-15.4 cm

3-4 cm

5-6 million/ha

220-230 kg/ha

Surface sowing:

Time:

May

Sowing into water:

Time:

May

Great part of rice cultivars is capable of regrowing and produce new tillers and panicles from the stubble after

harvest. Such regrowth from the cut stalks is called a ratoon crop. Ratooning method is better in the temperate

zone than in the tropics because the insects and diseases that persist from crop to crop pose more serious

problems in the tropics.

7. Diseases of rice

Physiological diseases

Cold injury: Rice requires warm weather in every growth stage. Low temperature can result slow and poor

germination, slow growth of young plants, brown spots on leaves and stems, stunted vegetative growth and

reduced size, incomplete panicle exsertion, formation of abnormal grains.

Panicle blight: The cool, misty weather at flowering stage results fertility problems in rice panicles. The low

night temperature (below 15 °C) causes sterility also in the highly cold-tolerant varieties. The cold-sensitive

genotypes suffer severe damage below 17-19 °C.

Bronzing: The colour of the leaves turns to brown or bronze. It is caused by the zinc deficiency. Rice plants

require more zinc at higher nitrogen levels so it appears more frequently in parallel the increasing nitrogen

doses. Bronzing may be caused by the improper management practices, such as inadequate application of

chemicals.

8. Diseases of rice

Rice tungro disease (Rice Tungro Bacilliform Virus, RTBV): is one of the most defective diseases

inSoutheast Asia, yield losses may be 100 %. Symptoms are stunting and yellow or orange-yellow discoloration

of the leaves. Infected plants also have reduced number of tillers and may show rust-colored spots on the leaves.

The virus can be transmitted by several insect vectors.

Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas oryzae): it causes vascular systemic infection. There are watery or yellow

stripes on the leaf blades. Infected leaves dry off quickly. Yield losses can reach 20-30 %, sometimes up to 50

%.

Seedling blight (Sclerotium rolfsii): infect young seedlings in warm weather. It causes discoloration and dying

of seedlings.

Blast (Pyricularia oryzae): it is spread worldwide, very significant rice disease in many countries. It infects all

parts of the rice plant. The infected culm will be rotted usually under the panicle and it easily breaks (it is called

also rotten neck disease). The fungus lives over in the rice straw so the crop rotation is a good tool to control it.

Narrow brown leaf spot (Cercospora oryzae): it causes narrow, long brown spots on the leaves, reducing the

assimilation area. It is very common rice disease, appears usually in the second half of the growing season.


PRODUCTION II.


Sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani):Sheath blight is characterized by large oval spots on the leaf sheaths and

irregular spots on leaf blades. The infection starts at tillering stage. Fungus can spread across the water surface

from plant to plant.

Brown leaf spot (Bipolaris (Helminthosporium) oryzae):seed-borne disease, the symptoms are reddish or

brownish leaf spots. This fungus is widespread and is one of the most dangerous diseases in several rice

producer areas in the world. There are resistant rice varieties to control this disease.

Stem rot (Sclerotium oryzae): the fungus attacks the culm near the water line, causing stalk break and lodging.

Early seeding can reduce the damage.

Kernel smut (Neovossia horrida): this disease spreads on the water surface by its spores. Infect the flowers and

developing grains. Symptoms are black pustules on the glumes.

Disease control

Crop rotation

Avoiding excessive rates of nitrogen

Varying flood water level

Resistant or tolerant varieties

Biological control

Chemical control

Seed treatment

Bactericides

Fungicides

9. Pests of rice

Nematodes (Meloidogyne, Ditylenchus, Pratylenchus, Heterodera, etc.): They are endoparasites, some species

can cause knots and swellings on roots. Most of the rice nematodes are potentially dangerous, bur their

significance is varied by the ecological conditions. Generally the root growth of rice is suppressed; later the

infected roots lead to slow plant growth and leaf chlorosis.

Rice thrips (Stenchaetothrips biformis): It can damage young rice seedlings. Adult insects and larvae suck the

sap from the leaf tissue, resulting slow growth. Intermittently submerging the infected crops can be successful to

control them.

Armyworms (Mythimna unipuncta, Spodoptera praefica): They are moths, their larvae feed on rice. Defoliation

reduces the photosynthetic capacity of the rice plant and thereby decreases yields. They do not live in Europe.

Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae): There are several leafhopper species worldwide. They suck the sap of the rice

plants; the symptom is yellowing of leaves from tip to downwards. Leafhoppers are vectors of several diseases,

especially viral diseases.

Rice leafminer (Hydrellia sp.): The larvae mine on the leaves, feeding on the parenchyma of leaf blade, causing

reduction of plant‟s photosynthetic area and of crop yield.

Tadpole shrimp (Triops cancriformis): Tadpole shrimps are pests mainly of water-seeded rice fields. As rice

grows the shrimps do not able to damage it, they are no pests longer, but may serve as a biological control agent

for mosquitoes and weeds.

Rice midge (Cricotopus spp., Chironomus spp.): Larvae feed on the embryo of germinating seeds or on the

developing roots of the seedlings.


PRODUCTION II.


Rice gall midge (Orseolia oryzae): it is serious pest in South and Southeast Asia. Maggots feed at the base of

the growing shoot, causing gall-like formation on the culm. Infested tillers terminate growing and do not

produce panicles.

Pest control possibilities in rice fields

• pest-free seed

• soil insecticide-nematicide

• proper crop rotation

• ploughing crop residues

• foliar pesticide use

• pesticide seed treatment

• biological control

10. Weeds and weed control

Rice has special weed flora which differs greatly from the weeds of other cereals. The difference is caused

mainly by the long-term flooding of rice fields.

2.2. ábra - Figure 11.Weedy rice field (Photo from IRRI)

The most dangerous weed species are:

Sea clubrush (Bolboschoenus maritimus)

Rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides)

Common reed (Phragmites australis)

Barnyardgrass (Echinocloa crus-galli)

The most serious weed out of Europe is red rice or weedy rice. Red rice is very difficult to control in rice fields,

because it belongs to the same species as the cultivated rice. Controling red rice means the prevention, so rice

seed must be free of red rice. Applying a proper crop rotation helps to eliminate the red rice infection of the rice

fields.

A parasitic weed, the purple witchweed (Striga hermonthica) can severely devastate the rice fields (and sorghum

and maize) in some sub-Saharan African countries.

Other important weeds are:


PRODUCTION II.


Mexican weed (Caperonia palustris), indigo weed(Sesbania exaltata), spike rush(Eleocharis spp.),

redweed(Melochia corchorifolia).

Weed control:

Most of the weeds can be suppressed by recommended herbicides. Seeding rice in water can be helpful in the

control of some weeds which cannot emerge in field that is flooded by water.

11. Harvesting

Ripening: September (Hungary)

Water should drain off before harvesting, because the soil should dry out.

Rice will ripe 35-45 days after flowering. The signs of the ripening: the husk is yellow, the grain is yellow or

brown, and the kernel moisture is between 20-25 %. The flowering stage of rice is pretty long; in consequence

the ripening is also a long period. Kernels in the lower part of the panicle are in hard-dough stage, while those in

the upper part are in full ripe.

Rice fields can be defoliated 5-8 days before harvesting (Reglone) to quick up ripening.

Tracked or half-tracked combine can be used for harvesting the rice. Wheeled combines can easily stick in the

wet soil.

Harvested rice should be dried to 14 % kernel moisture with 35°C air for safe storage.

The husk (hull) must be removed in dehuller or sheller before using.

2.3. ábra - Figure 12.Half-tracked combine in rice field

Paddy rice: the unmilledrice with its protective husk in place

Brown rice: unmilled rice only the husk is removed

Rice bran and germ contains great amounts of dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals.

White rice: milled rice, husk and bran is removed

Polished rice: white rice polished with rice wax or oil

Parboiled rice: is rough rice which has been subjected to a steam or hot water treatment prior to milling.

Parboiling increases the vitamin content of milled rice.

Milled rice quality classes in Hungary

„A” quality rice: maximum 10 % broken grain, other materials less than 0.2 %.

„B” quality rice: maximum 20 % broken grain, other materials less than 0.3 %.


PRODUCTION II.


12. Physical characteristics of milled rice

Shape: long grain, medium grain, short grain (round), flat, bold, fine (slender)

Translucency: can betranslucent, opaque, intermediate

Size: the size of hole grains, the main categories are>6 mm, 5.2-6 mm, <5.2 mm

Chalky spots: white belly, white back, white core

Hardiness: determined with the grain hardness tester, its dimension is g/mm2

1000 kernel weight: 3 classes are given by FAO for 1000 kernel weight of milled rice;very large (>28g), large

(22-28 g), small (<22 g)

13. Questions related to integrated rice production

1. What amount of nutrients need the rice?

2. What are the data of the rice sowing?

3. What are the important diseases of rice?

4. What are details of the harvesting of rice?


3. fejezet - Week 3. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER CEREALS (PROSO MILLET, BUCKWHEAT)

1. Origin and significance of proso millet

Proso millet is one of the oldest culture crops. The wild ancestors and the location of domestication are

unknown. First appears as a crop in China and Transcaucasia about 7000 years ago, in Europe it is cultivated

from 4000 B.C.

2. Significance of proso millet

• Human food – especially before potato was spread in Europe.

• In Africa and Asia it is important human food (beside grain sorghum).

• In Africa it is used for bread baking by mixing it in wheat flour (10-30 % of millet flour, 70-90 % wheat

flour).

• It is healthy food; proso millet grains consumption nowadays is increasing in developed countries.

• Proso millet is lack of gluten; therefore it can be included in the diet of people who cannot tolerate wheat

proteins (celiac disease).

• Fodder- it has similar feeding value as barley or oat. Grains must be ground for non poultry animals.

• Birdseed (for ornamental birds, exotic birds). Millet is common in birdseed mixtures. Birds prefer especially

the red coloured varieties.

• Proso millet is raw material of food industry (starch, spirit).

Millet production area shows decreasing tendency. The yield of other cereals is often higher especially on better

soils. It is extensively cultivated in India, Russia, Ukraine, the Middle East, Turkey and Romania. In the United

States proso millet is mainly grown as birdseed.

• World: 33-36 million ha, under 1.0 t/ha

• India (9.4 million ha, 0.85 t/ha),

• Nigeria (6.1 million ha, 1.0 t/ha),

• Niger (5.2 million ha, 0.48 t/ha),

• Sudan (2.57 million ha, 0.30 t/ha),

• Burkina Faso (1.5 million ha, 0.83 t/ha),

• Mali (1.25 million ha, 0.65 t/ha),

• China (1.1 million ha, 2.0 t/ha).

• Europe:

• Ukraine (370 thousand ha, 1.49 t/ha),

• Hungary(8.1 thousand ha, 1.57 t/ha),

Week 3. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER

CEREALS (PROSO MILLET,

BUCKWHEAT)


• Bulgaria (4.5 thousand ha, 2.2 t/ha),

• Romania (2.5 thousand ha, 0.8 t/ha).

Uses of proso millet in the world:

• Human food: 83-85 %

• Animal feed: 9-10 %

• Others: seed and industrial processing

Proso millet is favored due to its productivity and short growing season under dry, high temperature conditions.

It is adapted to poor, infertile soils and droughty areas. It is also more reliable under these conditions than most

other grain crops. It is an easy to grow crop. Millet seems to be well adapted to extensive (or primitive)

agricultural practices.

Millet becomes dangerous weed in many countries. Its persistence is due to the viability of its seeds, which can

stay in the ground for 4-5 years waiting for optimum conditions for germination.

3.1. ábra - Figure 13.Proso millet field

3. Taxonomical classification of proso millet





Class: Liliopsida - Monocotyledons

Subclass: Commelinidae

Order: Cyperales

Family: Poaceae Grass family

Genus: Panicum millets (550 species)

Week 3. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER


BUCKWHEAT)


Panicum miliaceum L. Proso millet; synonyms: common millet, hog millet, white

millet, broomcorn millet

4. Morphology of proso millet

Roots:

It develops a fibrous, well developed, but relatively shallow root system. Roots penetrate deep into the soil and

have great sucking force, therefore millet have very good water- and nutrient uptake and using ability.

Stem:

Proso millet has a jointed stem, is made up of a series of solid nodes and hollow internodes, it is also called

straw. The stem is 70-150 cm high, curved, covered with short hairs (pubescent). It has good tillering ability, 3-5

shoots grow from the crown of a plant.

Leaves:

The leaves are 40-50 cm long, narrow, 1- 2 cm wide, curved. It is covered with short hairs. Its characteristic is

the short ligule but no auricles.

Inflorescence:

The inflorescence is panicle, it can reach 10 to 45 cm length. The panicle may be open or compact, erect or

decumbent. Millet is highly self-pollinated, but the cross-pollination may exceed 10 %.

Fruits:

Millet‟s grain is a small caryopsis. It is 2 mm wide and 3-3.5 mm long, almost globular. 1000 kernel mass: 5-6

g. Hulls are variable in a wide range of colour (white, red, yellow, brown, black, dark green, olive green and

striped).

When the grain is threshed, most of the seed remains enclosed in the inner hull.

3.2. ábra - Figure 14.Grains of red proso millet

5. Soil conditions

Proso millet is well adapted to many soil types. It develops well developed, strong root system. The extended

root system results excellent water and nutrient using ability and excellent adaptability. It prefers the soils that

warm up rapidly.

Water-logged soils and those soils which warm up slowly are not suitable for millet production. It performs not

well on very loose sandy soils.

Main soil types are:

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Well-drained loamy soils

Brown forest soils

It can tolerate the salty soils, but the yield will be lower.


Proso millet is a short season crop with a low water requirement. Its growing season is 70-130 days in Hungary.

Heat Unit: 1400 °C.

Temperature is critical factor in every growing stage. Moderately warm weather is necessary for expected

growth. In cool weather its growth rate decreases significantly.

Germination starts at 10 °C temperature, but rapid and uniform emergence will occur above 12-14 °C.

In flowering stage it requires 20-22 °C daily average temperature.

Proso millet tolerates more cold than most of other C4 crops, but is very sensitive to frost.

Water demand of proso millet is the smallest among cereals. It has a very low transpiration ratio, due to the C4

type photosynthetic mechanism. Transpiration coefficient is 250 l/kg dry matter. It has excellent drought

resistance.

7. The main features of the millet varieties:

• yielding ability

• standability

• good adaptability

• quality

• drought resistance

• good tillering ability

• disease resistance

• earliness

• low seeding, low grain loss

• short growing season

8. Crop rotation of proso millet

Proso millet is not selective for forecrops. It performs well after much forecrops. In Hungary millet is often

grown as catch crops where other crops have failed or planting is delayed due to unfavourable weather.

• Good forecrops: winter forage mix, rapeseed, linseed

• Moderate forecrops: rye, winter barley

• Bad forecrops: millet (It should not be sown again in two years on the same field.)

9. Nutrient supply

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Due to its extended root system, it has good nutrient- and water uptake ability. It requires relatively low nutrient

supply. High rates nitrogen application typically leads to lodging.

When millet is sown after unsuccessful winter or spring crop, the fertilizer dose was spread beforehand should

be taken into consideration to avoid excessive nutrient supply.

Specific nutrient demand:

Proso millet removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg grain +

straw:

N 2.0 kg/100 kg

P2O5 0.9 kg/100 kg

K2O 2.2 kg/100 kg

CaO 0.7 kg/100 kg

MgO 0.2 kg/100 kg

Recommended nutrient doses:

N 30-70 kg/ha

P2O5 15-30 kg/ha

K2O 40-60 kg/ha

10. Soil preparation

Seedbed preparation for millet is similar to that for spring-seeded small grains. A well prepared seedbed is

important in growing millet, because it has small seed. The seedbed should be moist, firm and weed free.

Weeds should be controlled prior to planting. Cultivation for weed control is very important to millet is planted

late in the season.

Millet is produced as a catch crop:

• After harvesting the main crop: fertilization

• stubble stripping + closing (cultivator + ring-shaped roll)


11. Sowing of proso millet

Proso millet has a very long sowing period, but generally the earlier dates will produce better yields. Later times

are used primary when millet is sown as a catch crop. The long sowing period allow of proso millet be also used

for replacing unsuccessful winter or early spring crops.

The relatively high sowing rate results advantage in competitive ability in the early development stages. Due to

its small seed, shallow sowing is essential. The tiny plantlets develop from small seeds will not reach the surface

from greater depth.

3.1. táblázat - Table 6.Sowing data of proso millet

Temperature: 12-14 °C

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Sowing time: 10 May – 10 July

Row spacing: 12 cm

Depth: 1-2 cm

Sowing rate: 7-8.5 million /ha

1000 seed mass: 4.0-6.0 g

12. Diseases of proso millet

Proso millet has high tolerance against diseases in general, but some infections may cause yield losses.

Bacterial stripe disease (Xanthomonas panici):Infected plants have brown water-soaked streaks on the leaves

and stems. The long narrow lesions show numerous thin, white scales of the exudate.

Kernel smut (Ustilago crameri): Seeds develop into mass of dark spores of the fungus. It can be controlled by

seed treatment and crop rotation.

Head smut (Sphacelotheca destruens): The infection is systemic. Masses of black spores appear in place of the

spikelets. Can be controlled by seed treatment and resistant varieties.

Control:

• crop rotation

• proper land preparation (plow under crop residues)

• fungicide seed treatment

• plant pathogen-free seed

• growing resistant varieties

• foliar fungicide spray

13. Pests of millet

Armyworms (Spodoptera spp.): The caterpillars feed on millet plants (mainly at night). Older caterpillars can

cause severe damages. Droughty conditions are favourable for the fall armyworms.

Flea beetles (Chrysomelidae): They are small jumping beetles, which feed on seedlings and young plants. Flea

beetles produce a characteristic injury; they chew many small holes in the leaves.

Cereal leaf beetle (Oulema melanopus): Larvae feed on the host plant for 3 to 4 weeks. They feed between the

veins of the youngest leaves causing white stripes on them. It can cause serious damage.

Frit fly (Oscinella frit): Its larvae chew tunnels into the centre of millet causing dead-hearts. Affected tiller do

not produce panicle.

European corn borer (Ostrinia nubialis): The larvae (caterpillars) will bore in the stems and may cause

significant damage in millet field.

Rodents and birds can cause severe damage during ripening stage.

Pest control possibilities:

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• soil insecticide-nematicide treatment

• seed treatment with pesticide

• pest-free seed



14. Weeds and weed control of millet

Millets do not compete well against weeds. The seedlings grow very slowly during the first few weeks and they

are poor weed competitors. Cool weather in this period slows down the growing of millet further, resulting

weedy land.

Most dangerous weeds are:

Redroot amaranth(Amaranthus retroflexus)

White goosefoot(Chenopodium album)

Common ragweed(Ambrosia artemisiifolia)

Barnyard grass(Echinocloa crus-galli)

Foxtails(Setaria spp.)

Millet(Panicum miliaceum)

Canada thistle(Cirsium arvense)

Weed control possibilities:

Mechanical: soil cultivation before sowing.

Chemical control:

pre-emergent treatment: it is critical to control weeds without delay after sowing.

post-emergent treatment: easy to control broadleaf weeds.

15. Harvesting

Proso millet is ready for harvest when seeds in the upper half of the panicle are mature.

Seeds in the lower half of the panicle may still be in the dough stage but should have lost their green colour. The

leaves and stems may still be green. The ripening of the grains is not uniform throughout the panicle, because

the long flowering period; in consequence delay in harvesting may cause losses due to shattering. Applying

desiccants accelerates the drying process and helps the uniform ripening.

Usually proso millet is combined directly in the field. It is important to adjust the harvester machine properly,

because the grains of millet break easily. The cylinder speed should be very low (350 to 400 rpm) to reduce

splitting.

Millet may be harvested also by swathing to allow drying of straw before combining. Swathing too early

reduces yield, test weight and colour quality.

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Harvesting too late increases loss as a result of shattering and lodging.

16. Buckwheat production

Origin of buckwheat

Common buckwheat was domesticated and first cultivated in inland south-east Asia, probably in the area lying

between Manchuria and Turkestane, around 6,000 BC. It spread from there to Central Asia and Tibet and then to

the Middle East and Europe. Buckwheat is documented in Europe around 4,000 BC.

Production in Europe started in the 14-15th centuries.

Buckwheat was one of the earliest crops introduced by Europeans to North America.

3.3. ábra - Figure 15.Buckwheat field in flowering stage

Significance and uses of buckwheat

Area: 2-2.5 million ha in the world (yield: 0.8-1.2 t/ha)

Main buckwheat producers in the world:

• China (1.05 million ha, 1.43 t/ha),

• Russia (650 thousand ha, 0.89 t/ha),

• Ukraine (375 thousand ha, 1.15 t/ha),

• USA (65 thousand ha, 1.0 t/ha),

• Poland (60 thousand ha, 0.98 t/ha).

Buckwheat production area is around 300-1,000 ha in Hungary.

17. Uses of buckwheat

• It is consumed as human food in many different ways in the world. In Southeast Asia it is staple food for a lot

of people. Buckwheat flour is generally mixed with wheat flour to make biscuits, pancakes, noodles in Europe

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and in the USA. The groats and flour may be used also to prepare porridge or soup. It is used as leafy

vegetable in India.

• Buckwheat contains no gluten and can be eaten by people with coeliac disease or gluten allergies.

• Buckwheat is raw material to gluten-free beer production.

• It is excellent source of nectar for honey production. It is a high-yielding honey plant. The nectar from

buckwheat flower makes a dark-coloured, premium priced honey.

• It sometimes used as a green manure. It grows well on low-fertility soils and gives green manure rapidly. In

advance, after ploughing under it decomposes easily and quickly.

• It may plant for erosion control.

• It is excellent for wildlife cover and feed, wild games feed on it with pleasure.

• It causes photosensitivity in sensitive people and animals.

• Only the dehusked grain is considered to be safe for food.

• Medicinal use for the treatment of vascular disorders (rutin). Buckwheat contains the highest level of rutin

between all of food plants. Rutin is a flavonoid and antioxidant that may protect your body from

inflammation, blood circulation problems and cell damage caused by free radicals.

3.2. táblázat - Table 7.Chemical composition of buckwheat seed

Carbohydrates 75-76 %

Protein 11-12 %

Fat 2.2-2.9 %

Minerals 2.5-2.7 %

Its protein quality is very high, with biological values above 90 %. It has a high concentration of most important

essential amino acids, especially lysine, threonine, tryptophan, and the sulphur-containing amino acids. About

one third of the carbohydrates are dietary fibers.

3.4. ábra - Figure 16.Buckwheat plants

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18. Taxonomical classification of buckwheat

Order: Caryophyllales

Family: Polygonaceae

Genus: Fagopyrum buckwheats (15-16 species)

Species: Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. common buckwheat

F. tataricum L. tartary buckwheat

F. emarginatum (sagittatum): sagittate buckwheat, China, India, Japan.

It is treated as conspecific with F. esculentum

F. cymosum perennial buckwheat

19. Soil conditions of buckwheat

Buckwheat is tolerant of low soil fertility, but prefers well-drained soils with good water balance. Also light

(sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clayey) soils are suitable for buckwheat production. It can grow in heavy

clay and nutritionally poor soils. It tolerates also acid soils.

Main soil types: chernozem, brown forest soils, meadow soils, alluvial soils, sandy soils.

Not suitable soils are: very heavy soils and very loose sandy soils, due to the inadequate soil moisture regime.

Growing on highly fertile soils buckwheat can lodge badly.


Temperature

Heat Unit: 1500-1700 °C

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Temperature is critical factor in every growing stage. It prefers warm climate with adequate water supply and

relative air humidity. Buckwheat does not tolerate well dry and warm climate. Water stress cause significant

decreasing in yield and delay in ripening process.

Germination starts at 10-12 °C, but rapid emergence will occur at 12-14 °C soil temperature. It is very sensitive

to frost especially at the beginning and at the end of the growing season. Temperatures above 30 °C results

wilting and in flowering stage fertility problems.

It requires high light intensity, cannot grow in shade. It is a short-day plant.

The growing season is very short, 85-95 days. It is suitable to sow as a catch crop.

Water demand

Buckwheat is very sensitive to low soil moisture and grows very slowly under water stressed conditions. Its

water demand is high. The critical period is the flowering stage regarding to the water supply.

Transpiration coefficient: 750-800 l/kg dry matter.

21. Crop rotation

Buckwheat is not selective to forecrops. As catch crop it can be sown after any early cereals or pulses.

Good forecrops:

cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley)

greenpeas, Frenchbeans

Medium forecrops:

maize, sugar beet

Bad forecrops:

every late crops

buckwheat should be sown once in every 2 years on same field


Soil moisture conserving should be taken into consideration in all the soil preparation process. It is also

important to use rapid methods and mechanical weed control when it is grown as catch crop. It prefers well

prepared seedbed.

After early forecrop, with low plant residues:

• Stubble stripping + closing (cultivator + ring-shaped roll)

• Stubble maintenance + closing

• primary tillage (ploughing or loosening + ploughing)

• combined preparation


3.5. ábra - Figure 17.Achenes of buckwheat

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After late harvested forecrop, with many residues:

• Stubble chopping

• Heavy disk tillage

• Ploughing

• Combined preparation, levelling

• Seedbed preparation

23. Nutrient supply

Buckwheat‟s roots have good nutrient uptake ability. On nitrogen-rich soils its vegetative growth will be

overdone and it produces flowers scarcely.

Specific nutrient demand

Buckwheat plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg

yield:

N: 2.3

P2O5: 0.9

K2O: 2.0

CaO: 0.8

Recommended fertilizer doses: (kg/ha)

N: 20 – 50

P2O5: 15 – 30

K2O: 20 – 40

24. Sowing of buckwheat

The same sowing machine, which is used to cereals, is suitable also to buckwheat. Buckwheat can be sown as

catch crop to mid July. At adequate soil temperature it emerges quickly, in 5-6 days. On heavy soils it should

not be sown deeper than 2 cm.

3.3. táblázat - Table 8.Sowing data of buckwheat

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Sowing time 15 May-15 July

Row spacing: 12-15.4 (24) cm

Depth: 2-5 cm (5 cm on sandy soils)

Sowing rate: 2.5 million/ha

1000 kernel weight: 22-28 g

25. Plant protection

Buckwheat is a healthy plant; it is attacked by few diseases and pests. It has also very good competitive ability

against weeds. Usually growers do not use chemical pest, pathogen or weed control.

26. Harvesting

Buckwheat develops rapidly, it has short growing season. Flowering starts 2-3 weeks, ripening 10-12 weeks

after emergence. The long flowering period (4-6 weeks) results long ripening time.

Harvesting starts when the lower seeds are ripened (but there are many flowers on the side shoots, yet). It can be

combined directly on the field. It is important the proper combine adjusting to reduce seed splitting. Seedrain

could be very high at late harvesting.

27. Questions related to integrated production of other cereals (proso millet, buckwheat)

1. What is the difference in uses of millet and buckwheat?

2. Explain the climatic conditions of the millet and buckwheat production!

3. What amounts of nutrients need the millet and buckwheat?

4. What are the main diseases of proso millet?


4. fejezet - Week 4. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER CEREALS (AMARANTH, QUINOA)

1. Origin of amaranth

Amaranth is originated from South America, from the Andean region of Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia and Peru.

It was domesticated 3 000 to 4 000 years BP for human consumption. The greatest growing area it has in the

1400‟s connected to the Aztec civilization in Mexico. It has been grown for grain from the early 1800‟s in India,

Nepal, China and Eastern Africa.

2. Taxonomical classification of amaranth





Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons

Subclass: Caryophyllidae

Order Caryophyllales

Family: Amaranthaceae Pigweed family

Genus: Amaranthus Pigweed (>70 species)

Amaranthus caudatus L. pendant amaranth

Amaranthus cruentus L. red amaranth, Mexican grain amaranth

Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. Prince-of-Wales feather

3. Uses of amaranth

• Food

• The grains can be used as cereals (pseudo-cereal) for human consumption. Due to the grains are gluten-

free, it plays significant role in diet of people suffered from celiac disease.

• After grinding the amaranth grains suitable to making flour based products (soups, breads, noodles,

pancakes, pilaf, porridge, breakfast cereals, granola, cookies and crackers). The grains also can be popped

like popcorn and can be used also for toppings and confections.

• It has high nutritional value and is a functional food. The grain of amaranth is especially beneficial food for

infants, children and pregnant women. It may reduce cholesterol level in the blood.

• Many Amaranthus species has edible leaves (Chinese spinach) and they are used as leaf vegetables in

tropical regions of Africa, the Caribbean, India, China, and Southeast Asia. In these regions they can be

harvested four times in a year. In temperate regions amaranths have less significance as leaf vegetables.

• Livestock feed

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• The leaf, stem and head can be used as forage for livestock. It can produce 50-60 t/ha green mass. In dry

areas the amaranth as silage crop may become a good alternative of corn silage.

• Heat treated amaranth grains can also be used as an ingredient in poultry feed mixtures.

4.1. ábra - Figure 18. Amaranth

4. Morphology of amaranth

Amaranth has a strong, well developed taproot. The plant has herbaceous, thick, tough stem, it can grow up to

1.2-2 m high. Growth habits vary from prostrate to erect and branched to unbranched.

Leaves are single, their colour is dark green generally.

The inflorescence is an apical panicle, divided into small branches. The colour of the panicle may be white,

yellow, green, purple or red.

The fruit is 1 seeded capsule (pyxidium). The seeds are tiny, lens-shaped, 1 mm in diameter, white to cream-

colored. 1000 grain mass: 0.6-1.2 g.

Amaranth carries on photosynthesis by the C4 pathway. It performs better than C3 plants under droughty

conditions.

5. Nutrient content of amaranth seeds

Protein: 12-19 %

Carbohydrates: 65-73 %

Fat: 5-8 %

Minerals: 3.5-5 %

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4.2. ábra - Figure 19.Amaranthus cruentus

6. Climatic conditions of amaranth

Amaranths usually are cultivated in environments ranging from the true tropics to the semi-arid subtropics. They

prefer warm climate and respond well to high sunlight (C4 plant).

They tolerate well also the very high temperatures; some varieties show the peak of photosynthetic activity at

40°C temperature. Amaranth grows best when the daily maximum temperature is above 20 °C.

Light frost may cause serious damage or kills the plant.

Minimum temperature to germination is 16 °C measured in the sowing depth. The speed of emergence is

increased by increasing temperature.

Grain amaranths can be grown on areas with minimum 200 mm rainfall/year. They need sufficient moisture to

germination and establish, later they have high drought tolerance. They can tolerate significant water stress

without wilting or drying, and can survive longer droughty periods with help of their osmotic adjustment ability

and the physiological advantages of C4 photosynthetic pathway.

Vegetable amaranths require good water supply throughout the growing season and can be grown even on areas

with 3,000 mm annual rainfall.

Amaranths are sensitive to length of day, but their requirements and sensitivity vary in wide range. There are

either short-day or long-day varieties.

7. Soil conditions of amaranth

Amaranth can be produced on wide range of soils, has high adaptability, but high yield could be expected on

fertile soils only.

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Not suitable soils:

very loose sandy soils, water-logged soils

8. Nutrient supply of amaranth

Due to their excellent nutrient and water uptake ability, amaranths do not require high fertilizer doses. Moreover

high level nitrogen fertilization results excessive green mass production and low grain yield.

Recommended fertilizer doses for amaranth:

N: 20-40 kg/ha

P2O5: 15-35 kg/ha

K2O: 10-35 kg/ha

9. Sowing of amaranth

It has very small seeds, 1000 kernel mass is 0.6-1.2 g. The seeds emerge poorly, as low as 50 % germination, is

not uncommon. Due to the small seeds, it should not be sown deep, the optimal sowing depth is only 1-2 cm.

Emergence can easily be blocked by a thin crust on the soil surface.

Amaranths require warm soil to sowing, germination starts at 16 °C temperature. When the seeds are sown into

cooler soil, the emergence will be very slow and the infestations of soil-born diseases will be very high. In

consequence the dying percentage of germinating tiny plantlets could be very high.

Amaranth can be sown with a wide range of seed rate. Optimal pant density is between 100,000 and 500,000

plants/ha, depending on the growing conditions and utilization.

Row crop planters or vegetable planters can be used for sowing amaranths, but proper adjusting is essential to

sow the very small seeds. Wider row spacing give higher yields under favourable soil and climatic conditions.

4.1. táblázat - Table 9.Sowing data of amaranths

Sowing time: 25 April – 15 May (16 °C soil temperature)

Row spacing (cm): 45 – 75

Depth (cm): 1 – 2

Seed rate (kg/ha): 1 - 2 (1 - 2.5 million seeds)

Plant density (1000 plant/ha): 100 – 500

1000 kernel mass (g): 0.6-1.2

10. Diseases of amaranth

Amaranths are healthy plants, few diseases can infect them.

Damping off (Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia spp.): The disease occurs mainly on roots stem and leaf. Irregular

brown necrotic lesions appear on the infected plant. The leaves wilt.

Alternaria blight (Alternaria infectoria): Symptoms consist of small, round, yellow, brown or black spots,

often with concentric rings on the leaves. Later, the infected leaves may dry and drop off.

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Stalk rot (Phoma sp.): Dry, brown spots with thick black border appear on the lower part of the stem, the plant

wilts.

Choanephora blight (Choanephora cucurbitarum):This is the main disease of amaranths in some countries.

Sensitive varieties should not be grown in those areas. The fungus mostly infects through injuries caused pests.

Symptoms are water-soaked lesions at the leaf margins that became dry and light brown spots.

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp.): Phytophthora root rot rapidly kills infected amaranth seedlings.

On older plants the leaves become yellow, the plant wilt, and die. This disease is most severe in warm, wet

climate.

Fusarium root rot (Fusarium oxysporum): Fusarium can infect both the taproot and the secondary roots, and

kills the plants quickly.

11. Pests of amaranth

Beet weevil (Lixus subtilis): This beetle feed on the leaves and is harmful for young seedling of amaranths,

especially in dry and warm springs.

Flea beetles (Chaetocnema spp.): They are small, 1-2 mm long, shiny beetles. They are feeding on the leaves

chewing little holes. Affected seedlings develop slowly or may as well be killed.

Red spider mite (Tetranychus urticae): Spider mites feed on the leaf by extracting leaf cells fluid. Leaves

become usually dry and the green colour is lost. Even a minor infestation can have a significant impact on a

plant's health.

Tortoise beetle (Cassida nebulosa): It is a leaf beetle, feeding on several crops. This pest can significantly

damage amaranths.

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.): The caterpillars cut down and feed at night on the stems of seedlings of amaranths.

Tarnished plant bugs (Lygus spp.): They are sucking pests, attack the flowers and grains. They can cause

significant yield losses.

Amaranth weevil (Conotrachelus seniculus): The larvae bore into the stem and roots, resulting direct damage

and high potential for lodging of the plants.

12. Weeds and weed control of amaranth

Since amaranth is sown late in spring, many weeds will already have emerged. The early weeds must be

controlled by tilling the field prior to sowing.

Grain amaranths grow slowly in the first period, so three or four cultivations may be needed with row crop

cultivator to control weeds. Later amaranth plants grow rapidly and are very competitive with weeds.

There are no chemicals labelled to amaranth weed control.

Fields with high populations of pigweed (A. retroflexus) should not be used for amaranth production.

13. Harvesting of amaranth

Amaranth should be well dried prior harvesting. It can be combined directly on the field. Well adjusted combine

is essential because of the potential high seed loss. Shattering during the cutting process can cause high losses.

If the plants are not dried properly, the seeds become sticky and adhere to the inside of the harvester.

Grains can be stored safely at 10-12 % moisture content.

Yield can be 1.5-4.5 t/ha grain.

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QUINOA)


14. Quinoa

Origin of quinoa

Quinoa had its origin in the AndesMountains of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. It has been eaten for 5 000 years in its

native area (Inca rice, Inca wheat). It was staple food of the Inca people and remains an important food crop for

their descendants. The Incas called Quinoa 'the Mother Grain'.

4.3. ábra - Figure 20.The quinoa producers in the world (2010, FAOSTAT Database)

4.4. ábra - Figure 21.The yield of quinoa producers (2010, FAOSTAT Database)

15. Taxonomical classification of quinoa

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QUINOA)







Subclass: Caryophyllidae

Order Caryophyllales

Family: Chenopodiaceae Goosefoot family

Genus: Chenopodium Goosefoot

Chenopodium quinoa Willd. quinoa

Chenopodium berlandieri pitseed goosefoot

16. Uses of quinoa

• Food

• Quinoa is a highly nutritious food. The pericarp must be removed before human consumption, due to bitter

saponin compounds it contains.

• It is called “pseudo-cereal”. It has a unique flavor.

• Grains are used as flour, breakfast cereal or whole grain for food. The grains of quinoa are gluten-free,

accordingly they are suitable to gluten intolerant people (coeliac disease).

• Quinoa flour works well as starch extender in wheat or other cereal flour. The starch grains in the

endosperm are small, 2-4 m m in diameter, which is unique in the cereals.

• The protein quality and quantity in quinoa seed is superior to common cereal grains. Its lysine content is

higher than that of wheat.

• It can be used as leaf vegetable like spinach.

• Industry

• It is suitable to alcohol and alcoholic beverages production.

• Cosmetics, powder and carrier material.

4.5. ábra - Figure 22.Quinoa plant (photo: Markus Hagenlocher)

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17. Morphology of quinoa

Quinoa has strong, highly branched root system, consists of the well developed taproot and secondary roots.

The stalk is thick, erect, later becomes woody. It is 0.45 - 2 m high.

The leaves are wide, goose-foot-like. The leaf arrangement is alternate.

The inflorescence is panicle. Quinoa is mainly self pollinated, but up to 10-15 % cross pollination may occur.

The fruit is nutlet. The grains are flat with rounded sides, 2-3 mm. They may be wide range in colours: black,

red, pink, orange, yellow, or white. The grain is coated with dark layer of saponin class compounds.

18. Nutrient content of quinoa seeds

Protein: 13-15 %


Fat: 5-6 %

Minerals: 3.4-4.0 %

4.2. táblázat - Table 10.Mineral composition and vitamin concentrations in quinoa and

some cereals (Koziol 1992)

Minerals

(mg/kg dry wt)

Quinoa Wheat Rice Barley

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QUINOA)


Ca 1487 503 69 430

Mg 2496 1694 735 1291

K 9267 5783 1183 5028

P 3837 4677 1378 3873

Fe 132 38 7 32

Cu 51 7 2 3

Zn 44 47 6 35

Vitamins (mg/100 g dry wt)

Thiamin (B1) 0.38 0.55 0.47 0.49

Riboflavin (B2) 0.39 0.16 0.10 0.20

Niacin (B3) 1.06 5.88 5.98 5.44

vitamin C 4.00 0 0 0

α-tokoferol 5.37 1.15 0.18 0.35

β-carotene 0.39 0.02 0 0.01

19. Climatic conditions of quinoa

Quinoa prefers cool climate. The germination starts at 7-10 °C soil temperature. The seeds will not germinate in

warm conditions.

Temperatures above 35 °C cause plant dormancy and pollen sterility, in consequence yield decreasing.

Quinoa plant can tolerate light frosts (-1 °C). It has also good drought tolerance. It requires short daylength.

20. Soil conditions of quinoa

It tolerates well a wide range of soil types.

Good soils:

sandy-loam to loamy-sand soils

Not suitable soils:

very acidic soils (pH 4.8), soils have poor drainage, low natural fertility, alkaline soils (pH >8.5)

21. Nutrient supply of quinoa

Nitrogen supply has the greatest effect on the quinoa plant‟s development and on yield. It responds well to

nitrogen fertilization, but unbalanced nutrient supply (N-dominance) results high risk of lodging. Overdosed

nitrogen can cause dangerous level nitrate and nitrite accumulation in the leaves, similar to spinach.

Week 4. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER

CEREALS (AMARANTH,

QUINOA)


Recommended fertilizer doses (kg/ha)

N: 100-120

P2O5: 40-50

K2O: 40-60

22. Sowing of quinoa

Row spacing and seed rate vary in wide range depending on the ecological and growing conditions. Higher seed

rates are used when the growing conditions are not optimal. Due to its small seed, quinoa should be sown

shallowly.

4.3. táblázat - Table 11.Sowing data of quinoa

Sowing time: 1 - 15 April (5-7 °C soil temperature)

Row spacing (cm): 25 – 76.2

Depth (cm): 1 – 2

Seed rate (thousand/ha): 300-1 500

1000 grain mass (g): 1.9-4.3

23. Diseases of quinoa

Most diseases of plants belonging to the Chenopodiaceae family can also infect quinoa, but only few of them

cause serious damage usually.

Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas sp.): Symptoms are water-soaked lesions and necrosis on the leaves. Later

leaves turn to yellow and wilt.

Stalk rot (Phoma exigua var. foveata): Early symptoms are the yellowing and wilting of lower leaves. Later the

stalk rots at the basal part generally, and the whole plant dies.

Leaf spot (Ascochyta hyalospora): Widespread tan to reddish-brown, irregularly shaped spots appear on the

leaf. It has little and local significance.

Downy mildew (Peronospora farinosa): Symptoms are variable, but usually yellow chlorotic lesions appear on

the surface of the leaf, which eventually turn necrotic and brown later. The infection leads to premature leaf

loss. This is the most damaging disease of quinoa.

Grey mold (Botrytis cinerea): Infected areas of the plants show gray to brown discoloration, water soaking, and

whitish gray mold growing on the surface. The disease is favored by cool moist conditions.

Damping off (Sclerotium rolfsii): In case of early infections the seedlings die rapidly. On developed plants

yellowing, wilting and stem rot occur, the plants slowly dies. White, silky mycelium appears in the lesions. The

disease is most common in subtropical or tropical regions than in temperate areas.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): This is a soil borne disease, the symptoms are root rot and wilting. The

fungus has wide range of host plants, and might present in all of the field soils.

Control:

• crop rotation

Week 4. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER

CEREALS (AMARANTH,

QUINOA)


• plant pathogen-free seeds

• seed fungicide treatment

• using varieties with good disease tolerance

• foliar fungicide spray

24. Pests of quinoa

Nemathodes (Meloidogyne spp.): They are soil borne pests. The symptom is systemic chlorosis of the infected

plant.

Flea beetles (Chaetocnema spp.): The small jumping beetles chew little holes in the leaves of the quinoa. They

can cause severe damage in seedling stage, later the damage is less significance.

Aphids (Aphis spp.): They are sucking pests, many species can damage crops. Under favorable conditions they

can multiply rapidly and create large colonies, causing stunting of growing shoots. They transmit plant pathogen

viral diseases.

Beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua): The green caterpillars feed on the outer layer on the underside of leaves

in their early stages. Older, larger caterpillars consume leaf tissue that can result in complete defoliation of the

quinoa plants.

Cutworms (Noctuidae) (Agrotis spp., Heliothis spp.): The caterpillars cut young plants near the surface of the

soil. They can eat the whole plant in seedling stage.

Quinoa plant bug (Melanotrichus sp.): It sucks the juice from plants, causing distortion, wilting and dieback. It

attacks a very wide range of plants.

Control:

• crop rotation

• plant pest-free seeds

• soil treatment (against soil borne pests)


• foliar pesticide treatment

25. Weeds and weed control of quinoa

Mechanical:

• Weed control is difficult since plants grow slowly during the first two weeks and have weak competing

ability.

• Mechanical weed control is important during the soil preparation process.

• Between rows cultivation is possible in the wide row spacing only.

Chemical:

• There are no herbicides registered for use in quinoa.

26. Harvesting of quinoa

Week 4. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER

CEREALS (AMARANTH,

QUINOA)


Quinoa can be harvested at full maturity stage. The panicles on one plant ripe in different times. Harvest needs

to be precisely timed to avoid high grain losses. Significant seedrain may occur from over ripe panicles.

It can be combined in the field. Proper combine adjusting is essential to avoid grain losses or shattering.

Yield: 2-6 t/ha grain.

Total saponin concentration of the grains is between 2-6 %. The saponins are always removed before Quinoa is

consumed, because they have bitter flavor and toxical effect. They can be removed either by washing (they are

water or alcohol soluble) or mechanically. There are saponin-free varieties that contain only 0.1 % saponin

compounds and do not have bitter taste.

27. Questions related to integrated production of other cereals (amaranth, quinoa)

1. What are the uses of amaranth?

2. What are the data of quinoa and amaranth sowing?

3. What are the main diseases of amaranth?

4. What are the most dangerous pests of amaranth?

5. How can we harvest amaranth and quinoa?


5. fejezet - Week 5. INTEGRATED PEA PRODUCTION

1. Origin of pea

Pea was domesticated about 8,000 BC in south-western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean region. Probably it

was grown in England by the Romans.

2. Taxonomical classification of peas

Pisum is an Old World genus with a broad distribution of non-cultivated types from the western end of the

Mediterranean to the east of the Himalayas.






Family: Fabaceae (Papilionaceae) Pea family

Genus: Pisum Peas

Pisum sativum L. Garden pea

Pisum sativum conv. vulgare Field pea, dry pea

Pisum sativum conv. medullare Wrinkled pea

Pisum sativum conv. axyphium (saccharatum) Sugar pea

3. Uses of pea

• Food

• shelled pea, split pea (usually yellow seeded)

• greenpea (wrinkled seed)

• Livestock grain feed

• dry pea (usually green seeded)

• Green forage

• the whole plant

• Industrial raw material

• freezing and canning companies

• Green manure

4. Morphological types of pea

Week 5. INTEGRATED PEA

PRODUCTION


Field pea – Pisum sativum L. convar.vulgare

• the seed is smooth and globular, round

• the sugar content quickly changes to starch at ripening

• not so delicious as greenpeas

• it can be shelled easily

• seed colour: green, yellow

Use: split pea, dry pea, feed

Wrinkled pea – Pisum sativum L. convar.medullare

• seeds have high sugar content, they are sweet and delicious

• the sugar changes slowly to starch at ripening

• it has higher protein content

• seeds lose water slowly at ripening, it is tender for longer time

• harvesting could be longer

• ripened seed is shriveled and not shellable

• it requires better ecological and agrotechnical conditions

Use: canning and freezing factory, fresh consumption

Sugar pea – Pisum sativum L. conv. saccharatum

• it has high sugar content

• the stiff, papery inner parchment is lacking from the pod

• pods are consumed whole before the seed developed

• pods are wide and flattened

• it develops few, small seeds

• it is sensitive to bad ecological and agrotechnical conditions

Use: vegetable dishes

Victoria type

long stem (more than 100 cm)

Leafless or afila type

all of the leaflets changed to tendrils

5. Morphology of pea

Roots:

Pea develops branched taproot, which penetrates 80 – 140 cm deep into the soil. The main root mass can be

found in the 60 – 80 cm deep layer in the soil.


PRODUCTION


There are nodules on the roots with symbiotic bacteria (Rhizobium leguminosarium).

Nitrogen fixation:

Rhizobium bacteria in the root nodulesconvert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds useful to

plants. In return, the pea (and legumes) supplies the bacteria with carbon compounds produced by

photosynthesis. This is symbiotic relationship between plant and bacteria in legumes.

Stem:

Pea is climbing plant, its stem is 30 – 150 cm long, belongs to the indeterminate growing type. The stem is

branching, cylindrical, covered with glaucous wax layer. The colour of the stem may be light to deep green. The

stem consists of nodes and internodes.

Leaves:

Pea has compound leaf which contains of 1-3 pair of leaflets. The leaf arrangement is alternate. There are large

leaf-like stipules at the base of each leaves. The upper 1 – 4 pair of leaflets converted to tendrills (climbing

plant).

Inflorescence

Pea‟s inflorescence is raceme arising from the axils of the leaves. The individual flowers are papillionaceous,

they have 5 petals. The colour of the flower varies from white to purple.

Pea is self-pollinated plant. Usually, about two days before the flower opens the anthers release the pollen.

Some percent cross pollination may occur, depending on the weather conditions and the variety.

It has long flowering period, one plant blooms for 10-30 days. Flowering is sequential and upwards from node

to node. Dry, hot weather probably cause fertility problems during the flowering, and decreases the yield.

5.1. ábra - Figure 23.The papillionaceous flower of pea

Fruit:

The fruit is pod. The pods are variable in shape and colour, usually they are lightly curved. The pod is 5 – 15 cm

long, usually develops in pairs. There are 5 – 15 seeds in one pod (round or wrinkled). The colour of the round

seeds may be green (feed) or yellow (food). The wrinkled pea is always green.

The seeds can germinate just in ripening stage, because they have very short dormancy.

5.2. ábra - Figure 24.Garden pea


PRODUCTION


6. Chemical composition of dry pea seeds

Protein: 22-28 %


Fat: 1.5-1.9 %

Minerals: 3 %

Vitamins (vitamins C, B1, B2, folic acid)

5.3. ábra - Figure 25.Leafless type pea plant


PRODUCTION


5.4. ábra - Figure 26.Tendrils of leafless type pea

5.5. ábra - Figure 27.Pea in ripe stage


PRODUCTION


7. Development stages of pea

Germinating, emergence: usually lasts 5 to 12 days, hypogeal germination type.

Round seed takes up water 105 – 110 % of initial seed mass, requires minimum 3 – 4 °C temperature to

germination.

Wrinkled seed takes up water 150 – 155 % of initial seed mass, requires minimum 4 – 5 °C temperature to

germination.

Emergence- first leaf appearance: lasts 10 - 15 days.

First leaf – flower buds: lasts 18 - 25 days, plant requires 14 – 15 °C.

Flower buds – flowering: lasts 4 - 8 days.

Flowering – podding: lasts 8 - 14 days, pea requires 18 – 20 °C. Hot weather causes fertility problems. Pea has

its maximum water and nutrient demand in this stage.

Podding – ripening: lasts 22 - 35 days.

There are more scales to describe the phenological development of peas. One of them is the BBCH-scale, where

the codes of development range between 0 and 99.

Knot (1987) presented a key to describe the stages of development of the pea. The aim was to produce a simple

system to aid accuracy for timing of field operations.

8. Key for development stages of pea (Knot, 1987)

Germination and Emergence Stages


PRODUCTION


VE – the epicotyl emerges from the soil

VS – two small scale leaves appear on the stem

Vegetative Growth Stages

V1 – the true leaf has unfolded at the first node, no tendril

V2 – the second true leaf has unfolded at the second node, tendril present

V3 – the third true leaf has unfolded at the third node, tendril present

Vn – the nth true leaf has unfolded at the nth node, tendril present

Reproductive Growth Stages

R1 – flower bud present at one or more node

R2 – first open flower at one or more nodes

R3 – first flat pod present at one or more nodes

R4 – green seeds fill the pod cavity at one or more nodes

R5 – the leaves start yellowing and lower pods have turned yellow

R6 – yellow or dry seeds fill the pod cavity at one or more nodes

R7 – most pods on the plant are yellow to golden-brown


Heat unit calculation:

s: sowing date

h: harvest date

HU (dry pea): 1,300 – 1,600 °C

HU (green pea): 600 – 960 °C

Water demand of pea is 380-420 mm in the growing season. The effective root zone is between 0 - 70 cm depth

in the soil, but the root distribution is concentrated near the surface. The available water in the upper 40 cm soil

layer determinates the yield.

Pea requires even water supply in the whole growing season. Soil water content is critical in every stage, but

especially critical during flowering and yield formation stages.

Transpiration coefficient: 650-750 l/kg dry matter.

Most of the varieties need long day length.

Beneficial climatic conditions in the months of the growing season:

March: low precipitation and uniform warm weather.

April: moderately warm, 40-60 mm precipitation.


PRODUCTION


May: rainfall is about 100 mm, daily average temperature should be below 25 °C. HU: 500-550 °C.

June: moderately warm, low precipitation, daily average temperature below 25 °C.

July: dry weather.

10. Soil conditions

Pea is demanding for the soils. Suitable soils for pea production usually have good water regime, good nutrient

availability and adequate Ca content. Good aeration of the soil is essential, compacted soils with reduced pore

volume and damaged physical structure are unsuitable for pea. Compacted soil can reduce yield by as much as

50 % due to bad aeration, increased resistance to root penetration and poor drainage.

Good soils:

chernozem, meadow soils, brown forest soils, alluvial soils

Not suitable soils:

poor sandy soils, alkaline soils, very acidic soils, water-logged soils, saline soils, very heavy soils,

soils with low Ca-content

11. Crop rotation of pea

Herbicides applied in the preceeding crop should be taken into consideration, because pea is sensitive to

herbicide residues.

• Good forecrops: cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley), poppyseed, linseed, sweetcorn

• Moderate forecrops: maize, sunflower

• Bad forecrops: sugarbeet, sudangrass, sorghums

Pea or other pulses again: after 4 years (important!)

Pea is excellent forecrop for winter wheat, the yield of the wheat increases with 1.0 – 1.2 t/ha after it.


Pea usually requires deep cultivation and well prepared, deep seedbed. Avoid excessive tillage in the spring to

avoid drying out the soil. Seedbed with large clods results uneven emergence and yield decreasing.

Soil preparation systems after different forecrops:

Early forecrop, with low plant residues:

• stubble stripping + closing (cultivator + ring-shaped roll)

• stubble maintenance + closing

• primary tillage in fall (ploughing (30-35 cm deep) or loosening (40 cm deep) + shallow ploughing (18-22 cm

deep)

• combined preparation in fall

• seedbed preparation (combinator) in spring, prior the sowing

Late harvested forecrop, with many residues:



PRODUCTION


• Heavy disk tillage in fall to fritter the residues of the preceeding crop

• Ploughing in fall (30-35 cm deep)

• Combined preparation, levelling in fall

• Seedbed preparation in spring

13. Nutrient supplyof pea

Pea has high nitrogen demand, but it requires low level of nitrogen fertilization, because the N-fixation. It lives

in symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria thatconvert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous

compounds useful to plant. Nitrogen fertilizer should be spread in early spring. The potassium and phosphorous

fertilizers should be broadcasted in fall during the soil preparation.


Pea plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg seed +

straw:

N: 3.5 – 4.5 (kg/100 kg)

P2O5: 1.0 – 1.5 (kg/100 kg)

K2O: 1.5 – 2.4 (kg/100 kg)

CaO: 2.0 – 2.4 (kg/100 kg)


N: 50 – 70

P2O5: 60 – 80

K2O: 80 – 90

Applying higher than 50 - 70 kg/ha nitrogen dose results reduced activity of Rhizobium bacteria. Applying lime

on acidic soils with Ca deficiency can be beneficial.

14. Features expected from pea varieties

• Productivity, yield stability

• Good standability, many tendrills

• Good resistance

• Good quality

• Uniform seed size

• Low seed rain

• Good nutrient and irrigation reaction

15. Sowing of pea

Pea should be sown early in the spring in order to flower before the hot summer weather conditions. Pea

seedlings can withstand considerable frost. Wrinkled seeded pea varieties require warmer soil (minimum 4-5

°C) to germination. They should be sown later, when the soil temperature reached the required minimum in the

sowing depth.


PRODUCTION


Due to the pea germinates hypogeal, it should be sown deep, 6-8 cm.

Early varieties need higher seed rates, while later varieties need lower rates. Same grain drills suitable for

sowing cereals can also be used to sow peas.

5.1. táblázat - Table 12.Sowing data of pea

Sowing time: 10 – 30 March

Row spacing (cm): 12 – 15.4

Depth (cm): 6 – 8 (hypogeal)

Seed rate (million/ha): early: 1.3-1.5

medium: 1.1-1.3

late: 1.0-1.2

Seed mass (kg/ha): 200-320

16. Diseases of pea

Bean leaf roll virusBLRV: The general symptoms are interveinal chlorosis, yellowing of young leaf tips,

stunting and sometimes leaf rolling.

Pea enation mosaic virusPEMV:Symptoms are yellow spots and lightened veins on the leaf. Later the leaves

become curled and the plant wilts. Aphids can transmit the pathogen virus.

Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. pisi): Small, dark green, water-soaked lesions appear on leaves and

stipules. The infected plants may be killed.

Leaf and pod spot (Ascochyta blight) (leaf, stem, pod) (Ascochyta pisi, A. pinodes, A. pinodella): Three

different fungus species are responsible for the disease called the ascochyta blight complex. The symptoms are

purplish-black discolouration and streaking on the stem, spotting of the leaves and pods. The leaf spots are

small, irregular, dark-brown. Infection can occur at any time during the growing season. Yield loss can reach 50

% in the susceptible varieties.

Rust (Uromyces pisi): Yellow, light brown spots, pustules appear mainly on leaves, but all part of the plant can

be affected.

5.6. ábra - Figure 28.Powdery mildew on pea


PRODUCTION


Powdery mildew (Erysiphe pisi): This is a very widespread disease and can cause significant yield losses. The

symptoms are white, powdery spots on the leaf surface, the pods may get brownish spots. Resistant varieties are

available.

Downy mildew (Peronospora pisi): Irregularly shaped, yellow to brown spots or lesions appear on the upper

side of the foliage. Cool, moist weather favors disease spreading.

Botrytis pod rot (Botrytis cinerea): Symptoms are first water soaked later grey molded spots on the pod,

usually on the terminal end.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi): It is a widespread and destructive disease. Symptoms are the

yellowing of the leaves and stunting or dwarfing of plant growth. The xylem in the cross section of the stem is

orange-brown colour. Affected plants may wilt and die rapidly.

Control:

• crop rotation

• plow under crop residues

• plant pathogen-free seed

• resistant varieties


• foliar fungicide

17. Pests of the pea

• pests in the soil: wireworms, (click beetles, Elateridae), grubs (Melolontha spp.) nematodes feed on roots

• after emergence: hare, pheasant

• at ripe: doves


PRODUCTION


Longhorned weevils (Sitona lineata, Sitona crinita): They (adult weevils) feed on the leaf of the pea, but

usually do not cause significant damage.

Pea thrips (Kakothrips robustus): They are small insects up to 2 mm long. They feed on the plant sap. The

affected area gets typical mottled, silvery and distorted appearance.

Pea aphids (Acyrtosiphon pisum): Suck the sap from the stem and leaves of the pea plant which results

in wilting, deformed stems, leaves or flowers.

Pea weevil (Tychius quinquepunctatus): Feeds on leaves leaving „U‟ shaped indentations on the leaf edge. Its

larvae feed on the roots of the plants.

5.7. ábra - Figure 29.Damage of pea moth

Pea moth (Cydia nigricana): The caterpillars feed inside pea pods, but the severe damage is often only spotted

at harvest.

Pea podborer (Etiella zinckenella): The caterpillars feed on seeds and cause chewing damage. Inside the pod

webbing can be found.

Cutworms (Noctuidae) (Mamestra sp., Heliothis sp.): Cutworms are caterpillars of various moths in the family

Noctuidae. They were named after their habit of cutting down seedlings. The damaged plantlet usually dies.

Some cutworms feed on foliage.

Pea bruchid (Seed weevil) (Bruchus pisorum): Larvae live in and feed on seeds of the pea plant. This pest

damage peas in Hungary from the XIXth century.

• It feed mainly on pea, but also on chickpea, lupin and grass pea.

• It has one generation per year, the adult beetles overwinter.

• The adult beetle is 4-6 mm long, black-brown, the larva is 1.5-6 mm long, depending on the development

stages.

• Adult beetles emerge from the mature seeds, leaving a circular exit hole on them.

5.8. ábra - Figure 30.Pea bruchid and the exit holes

5.9. ábra - Figure 31.Adult pea bruchid


PRODUCTION


18. Weeds and weed control of pea

Weeds can be a major problem in pea production, because it is a poor competitor with weeds, especially during

the first month, when it develops slowly. The success of early season weed control is very critical.

An integrated weed management system should be applied including proper crop rotation, field selection,

adequate plant density, and use of clean seed. The herbicide tolerance of the varieties varies significantly, so

herbicides should be applied with care.

The glaucous waxy layer on the leaves and stem is important in the herbicide tolerance, because its water-

repellent nature prevent chemicals to absorb. Do not spray herbicides above 20 °C and immediately after rain,

because phytotoxicity may occur. There are significant differences between the pea varieties in herbicide

tolerance and the thickness and water resistance of the waxy layer.

There are several preemergent and post-emergence herbicides labeled for weed control in field pea. The

performance of preemergent herbicides depends highly on the weather conditions, especially on the amount of

rainfall in the next two weeks. Post-emergent treats cause severe damage in the field (tread of the machine).

Most dangerous weeds are:

T2

Mayweed species (Matricaria spp.)

Corn chamomille (Anthemis arvensis)

Poppy (Papaver rhoeas)

Cleavers (Galium aparine)

T3

Wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis)

Wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)

T4

White goosfoot (Chenopodium album)

Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus)

Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)

Perennial:

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense)

Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis)

Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)


PRODUCTION


Couch grass (Agropyron repens)

Weeds can germinate from deep layer of the soil:

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) (volunteer plants)

Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia)

Velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti)

Cockleburs (Xanthium spp.)

19. Harvesting

Pea can be harvested in July when pods are dry and seed moisture is less than 16 %. The older, bottom pods

mature first. In hot, dry weather, peas mature very rapidly. The maturity should be checked frequently in the

bottom, middle and top of plants. Harvesting at too low moisture content can cause high cracking and splitting

losses. Lodging may occur in most pea varieties (except leafless types) before harvest.

It can be combined directly in the field. Very low cylinder speeds (350 to 600 rpm) should be used to reduce

splitting. Seed moisture content should be 14 percent or less for safe storage.

20. Questions related to integrated pea production

1. What are the development stages of the pea?

2. What are the data of pea sowing?

3. What are the main diseases of the pea?

4. What are the most dangerous pests of the pea?


6. fejezet - Week 6. INTEGRATED SOYBEAN PRODUCTION

1. Significance of soybean

• Soya is significant human food in East Asia (tofu, juba, miso, natto, shoyu).

• It is rich in vitamins (A, B, E, K) and biologically active or metabolic ingredients.

• The soy enrichened food production is growing.

• The protein content is 38-42 %.

• Its oil content is 18-22 %.

• It is the main plant-lecithin source.

• The residues of oil extraction – soybean meal – are excellent animal feed.

• Soy is the main plant protein source in animal feeding.

• It may use as green fodder crop, mainly in the USA (soybean with maize).

2. Chemical composition of soybean seeds

Protein: 38-42 %


Oil: 18-22 %

Minerals: 3-4 %

Vitamins (vitamins C, B1, B2, A, E, K, niacinamid)

Fibers: 3.9-5.3 %

Protein content of soybean seeds

• Seeds contain 38-42 % protein.

• Most of its proteins belong to globulin family.

• It has excellent amino-acid composition (rich in essential amino acids).

• Its lysine content is very high.

• It has low level of sulfur-content amino acids (cysteine, methionine)

• The seeds also contain phyto-estrogens.

• The soy-protein can be used as meat analogues, soups, salad dressings, nondairy creamer, etc.

Oil content of soybean seed

• Oil content of the seed is 18-22 %.

• 14-16 % of the oil content is saturated fat (stearic acid, palmitic acid).

Week 6. INTEGRATED SOYBEAN

PRODUCTION


• 20-25 % of the oil is mono unsaturated fat (oleic acid).

• 55-60 % of the oil is poly unsaturated fat (linolenic acid, linoleic acid ).

• The lecithin content is 2-3 % (in the oil).

• The oil is semi drying – drying type.

• The oil is used as cooking oil, printing inks, oil paints, emulsifier (lecithin).

3. Morphology of soybean

Roots

Soybean develops branched taproot that reaches 1.5 – 2.0 m depth in the soil. The root system mainly can be

found in the upper 20-30 cm layer of the soil.

Nitrogen fixing: Soybeans live in symbiosis with Bradyrhizobium japonicum N-fixing bacteria. Rhizobium

bacteria supply ammonia or amino acids to the plant in return they receive organic acids as a carbon and energy

source. Generally 20-30 nodules develop on the roots of a mature plant. The fixed amount of N varies between

60-190 kg/ha.

Seed inoculation can be beneficial on those areas where soil don‟t contain high population of Rhizobium

bacteria.

The inoculation is successful when 4-8 nodules /plant can be found in 10-15 days after germination.

Stem

The stem of soybean is herbaceous. It is 50-120 cm high, covered with brown hairs. The stem branched in the

lower third, the main shoot is robust and rigid. Higher varieties lodge easier. The stem become hollow and tan to

brown in maturing. There are varieties with determinate and indeterminate growth habit.

Leaves

The first leaf is unifoliolate, later trifoliolate, brown haired leaves develop (3 leaflets). The leaves dry and fall

down in mature stage in case of most varieties.

6.1. ábra - Figure 32.The compound leaf of the soybean

Flower


PRODUCTION


Soybean has typical papilionaceous flower that consists of tubular calyx of five unequal sepals and a five-part

corolla. There are 9+1 stamens. The flower colour is usually purple. The flowers are placed in inflorescences of

2-35 flowers. Soybean is usually self-pollinated, cross-fertilization is less than 1 %. Pollination may occur

before the flower opens.

6.2. ábra - Figure 33.Flowers of the soybean

Fruit

The fruit is pod with 1-3 (rarely 4-5) round or elliptical seeds. The pods are 5-7 cm long, straight or slightly

curved, covered with brown hairs. The colour of the seeds varies from yellow to green or black. Yellow

coloured varieties often have a dark eye on the seed. The seeds are composed of two cotyledons. The stored

protein, starch and oil can be found mainly in the cotyledons.

6.3. ábra - Figure 34.Pods of soybean


PRODUCTION


4. Development stages of soybean

Management strategies for improving soybean yield are most effective when you are able to identify the growth

stage in which potential yield is affected. Experts of IowaStateUniversity worked out a system of soybean

growth stages. The system divides plant development into vegetative (V) and reproductive (R) stages. The

vegetative stages are numbered according to how many fully-developed trifoliate leaves are present. The

reproductive (R) stages begin at flowering and include pod development, seed development, and plant

maturation.

The stages can overlap. When determining the growth stage of your crop, consider that a growth stage begins

when 50 % or more of the plants are in or beyond that stage.

Vegetative period: from germination to flowering: VE, VC, V1-V10.

Reproductive period: starts at flowering: R1-8.

VEEmergence: cotyledons emerging above soil surface

• 5-14 days

• determinant the temperature

• germination starts on 5-9 °C

• seeds water take up 60-80 % of self mass

• aeration of the soil is important


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VC Cotyledon: cotyledons fully expanded, 2 unifoliate leaves

V1 2nd node: 1 node on main stem with 1 fully developed trifoliate leaves

V2 3rd node: 3 nodes on main stem with 2 fully developed trifoliate leaves

• nodules begin forming on roots

• check for proper nodulation

V3 4th node: 4 nodes on main stem with 3 fully developed trifoliate leaves

• cotyledons are fallen down

• increased lateral root growth

• branching begins at first node

• 12-15 °C temperature is beneficial

V4-V10: number of trifoliate leaves, V5: 5 trifoliolate, V10: 10 trifoliolate

• cotyledons have fallen off

• branching

• increased lateral root expansion

• new V stage in every 3 days

R1: Beginning bloom: 1 open flower on main stem

• usually occurs at V7 to V10

R2: Full bloom: 1 open flower at one of upper 2 nodes on main stem

• large number of nodules on roots

R3: Beginning pod: pod 0.5 cm long at one of 4 uppermost nodes on main stem

• flowers appear rapidly (60-75 % of flowers will be aborted)

R4: Full pod: pod 2 cm long,

• rapid pod growth,

• beginning of seed development,

• flowering at upper nodes

• critical period for yield

R5: Beginning seed: seed 0.3 cm long at one of 4 uppermost nodes

• pod number set

• seed number determined

• plants very sensitive to stress

• high level water and nutrient demand

R6: Full seed: 1 greenseed fills pod cavity at one of 4 uppermost nodes


PRODUCTION


• seed weight approaches maximum

• leaves begin to turn yellow

R7: Beginning maturity: 1 pod on main stem has reached mature color,

• seed size is set

• most seeds physiologically mature

• 50 % of leaves yellow

R8: Full maturity: 95 % of pods are full mature color

• leaves have dropped off

• 5 to 10 days before harvesting

6.4. ábra - Figure 35.Soybean in ripe stage

5. Features expected from varieties

1. Productivity, yield stability

2. Length of the vegetation period (20-25 days difference in parts of Hungary)

3. Height of the lowest pods (at least 15 cm from soil surface harvesting!)

4. Standability


PRODUCTION


5. Quality

6. Resistance

7. Good nutrient and irrigation reaction

6.1. táblázat - Table 13.Listed soybean varieties in Hungary (2012)

Super early (00) Early (0) Medium (I) Late (II)

Boglár Alíz Angela Zsuzsanna

Boróka Altapro Bács Kun

Bristol Bólyi 44 Bóbita

Cardiff Borostyán Bólyi 56

Cordoba DH4173 BS 31

ES Mentor Evans Crusader

Lambton Johanna Elvira

London KG Éden Emese

Malaga Korada Eszter

Naya Kurca Etelka

OAC Erin Lucija Flóra

PrestoPro Martina Hipro 15

Primapro Meli Ika

Sevilla OAC Wallace Kiskun Csilla

Supra Primor Krisztina

Sponsor Minnpro

Tarna Otília

Vita Pannónia kincse

Royalpro

Stefi

Tekla

TerraPro


PRODUCTION


Zelma

6.2. táblázat - Table 14.Vegetation period of soybean varieties

Vegetation period Sign Vegetation period (days) Ripening

Very early 00 85-110 Mid August

Early 0 95-120 End of August

Medium I 110-130 Beginning of September

Late II 120-140 Mid September

Very late III 140< End of September – October

6. Soil conditions of soybean

Soybean is not highly selective to soils, it can be grown on wide range of soil types. It can adapt to a variety of

soil conditions, but is sensitive to poor soil aeration and poor drainage. Excess soil moisture can injure the plant

quickly.

Good soils:

• chernozem and loose, well-drained, fertile loam soils

• good quality brown forest soils

• alluvial and meadow soils

Not suitable soils:

• soils in bad culture state (poor drainage)

• very heavy alluvial and meadow soils

• heterogeneous area

• sandy soils

• eroded and thin layer soils

• sodic soils

• very heavy clayey soils

• water-logged soils

7. Climatic conditions of soybean

Warm climate and high air humidity is essential for high yields. High air humidity is especially important during

the flowering period.

Heat Unit: 2,200-2,500 °C (varieties are used in Hungary). The minimum temperature for growth is 10 °C.

Daily average temperature beneficial for soybean growing is about 24-25 °C.

Low temperatures do not damage the early stage plants. Frost tolerance in seedling stage is good, -6 - -7 °C,

later it becomes susceptible.


PRODUCTION


Soybean has great water demand. The transpiration coefficient is 750-800 l/kg dry matter. It requires high soil

water content (but not excessive) in all of the growing season.

Most of the varieties need short day length.

8. Crop rotation

Growing soybeans after soybeans will increase the incidence of diseases, nematodes, soil insects. The result is

generally decreased yields and increased production costs. Soybean should be sown on a field no more than

once in every 4 years.

Good forecrops:


some industrial crops (poppy, early potato, etc.)

winter and spring forage mixes

Medium forecrops:

maize for silage, maize, sugar beet

Bad forecrops:

soybean and other pulses (peas, bean, fababean, etc.) should be sown once in every 4 years on the

same site

2-3 years gap after sunflower, rapeseed should be left

9. Soil preparation

Soybean requires deep tillage of soil. Due to get deep soybean rooting, the depth of the tillage should be at least

30-35 cm. It is important the good seed – soil contact for rapid germination. The good seedbed to soybean is

uniformly firm, has adequate moisture content and weed free. Let the weeds germinate before stubble

maintenance.

After early forecrop, with low residues (cereals, rapeseed):

• Stubble stripping + closing (field cultivator + ring-shaped roll)


• Primary tillage (ploughing or chiselling + ploughing)

• Integrated preparation tools

• Seedbed preparation (field cultivator, combinator, germinator)

Late harvested forecrop, with many residues (maize):



• Ploughing (30-35 cm deep)

• Combined preparation, levelling, integrated preparation tools

• Seedbed preparation (field cultivator, combinator, germinator)


PRODUCTION


10. Nutrient supply of soybean

Soybean has high nitrogen demand (6 kg for 100 kg yield), but the level of nitrogen fertilization may relatively

low, because the N-fixation of its symbiotic bacteria. Soybeans live in symbiosis with Bradyrhizobium

japonicum. High nitrogen dose decreases the amount of the fixed nitrogen.


Soybean removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg seed +

straw:

N: 6.0 (kg/100 kg)

P2O5: 4.0 (kg/100 kg)

K2O: 4.0 (kg/100 kg)

CaO: 2.3 (kg/100 kg)


N: 50 – 70

P2O5: 70 – 80

K2O: 80 – 100

11. Sowing of soybean

Applying an inoculant specific for soybeans is beneficial if soybeans have not been grown on the same land in

the last three years. The yield can increase with 20 % after this treatment.

Too early sowing causes premature flowering, plant stunting and reduced seed quality.

Seeding rate should be increased by 10 to 20 % if planting late, or in a dry or cloddy seedbed. 50 cm row space

helps insure full canopy development which can reduce soil moisture loss and suppress late emerging weeds.

6.3. táblázat - Table 15.Sowing data of soybean

Sowing time: 15-30 April

Row spacing (cm): 45-50

Depth (cm): 3-5 (epigeal germination habit)

Sowing rate (thousand/ha): 500-600

1000 seed mass (g): 120-200

12. Diseases of soybean

Viral diseases

Soybean mosaic virus, SMV: Rugosity, dark green vein banding and light green interveinal areas are the

symptoms. Infected plants are also stunting, their leaves may be curling, the flower deformate. Necrosis and bud

blight may appear.

Bean yellow mosaic virus, BYMV: Yellow mosaics appear on the leaves.


PRODUCTION


Bean pod mottle virus, (BPMV): The symptom of the virus infection is mottling and streaking of seed coats.

Soybean dwarf virus (SDV): A systemic puckering, rugosity and yellowing of leaves are the symptoms of this

viral disease. The plant is stunting.

Peanut mottle virus (PeMoV): The main symptoms are leaf mottling and necrosis.

Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV): Mosaics appear on the leaves, the plant may be stunting.

Bacterial diseases

Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae ): Symptoms are irregularly shaped lesions, yellow to brown spots on

the leaf. Young plants are stunting and may die. It is usually an early season disease.

Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas (Ralstonia) solanacearum):The main symptom is thewilting of the leaves. The

infected plants often die.

Bacterial pustule (Xanthomonas campestris (syn. axonopodis)): Pale green circular spots appear on the leaves.

It can cause premature defoliation and significant yield decreasing.

Wildfire (Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci): There are brown necrotic spots of variable size, surrounded by

broad yellow halos on the leaves. Affected leaves fall down readily.

Bacterial tan spot (Corynebacterium flaccumfaciens):Large, tan necrotic spots appear on the leaves.

Fungal diseases

Downy mildew (Peronospora manschurica): Light green or yellow spots appear on the leaves. The fungus

prefers rainy and humid conditions. It is a seedborne disease.

White mold (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum): The infected young plants wilt and die rapidly. They produce no seeds.

On older plants the leaves turn to greyish brown and wilt, the lower stem covered with white mycelium of the

fungus, usually. The yield loss can be significant, depending on how much plants are killed.

Pod and stem blight (Diaporthe phaseolorum var. sojae): Symptoms are black dotted pods and stems, the

plants may die. Infected seeds usually are wrinkled and discoloured or covered with white mould. It spreads

mainly through infected seeds.

Phytophthora rot (root and stem) (Phytophthora megasperma var. sojae): It is a serious fungal disease of

soybean. Symptoms are water –soaked appearing and wilting of seedlings, dark brown discoloration on the stem

and wilting of the leaves of older plants. The roots of affected plants are rotted. There are resistant varieties,

using one of them is the best control method.

Charcoal root rot (Macrophomina phaseolina): Main symptom is the root of the stem base. The infected plants

die. The fungus infects from the soil.

Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta sojicola syn. Phoma exigua var. exigua): Isolated leaf spots with dark margins and

brown streaks on stems and pods appear.

Brown spot (Septoria glycinae): Symptoms are irregular light-brown lesions, ranging in size on leaves, stem or

pods. It causes early defoliation.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum glycines):

Cercospora blight (frogeye leaf spot) (Cercospora sojina): Small lesions appear on the leaves, stems and pods

which turn from reddish colour to brown, later the spots become gray and dry. Cercospora can also infect seed,

causing a purple stain on it. It spread through infected seeds. Resistant varieties are available.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): It is a soil-borne fungus that infects soybean roots and causes soybean

root rot and wilt of the whole plant. Thinned and brownish root neck results in stem break. Fusarium wilt is a

widespread and destructive soybean disease.

Control:


PRODUCTION


• crop rotation


• pathogen-free seed


• resistant or tolerant varieties


• control the vectors (viral diseases)


13. Pests of soybean

Wireworms, grubs (Elateridae, Melolontha sp.): These pests feed on roots throughout the growing season

causing root loss and stand loss. They can damage the seedlings especially.

Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.): Different species of nematodes may be a major problem in soybean production.

The easy-to-see symptoms are stunting and wilting of the severely infected plants. The best control method is

the proper crop rotation.

Fleahoppers (Halticus bractatus): Fleahoppers are true bugs. They are small, black bugs, having fat legs

modified for jumping. They suck plant juices, damaging the plant cells and creating yellow feeding spots. The

damage resembles spider mites damage.

Longhorned weevils (Sitona sp.): They feed on the leaves of the soybean causing foliar damage. The larvae of

the weevils specifically eat the root nodules formed on the roots by the soil bacteria Rhizobium.

Leaf weevils (Tanymecus sp., Psalidium sp.): Adult beetles eat shoots, cotyledons, and young first leafs. They

can cause significant foliar injury.

Stink bugs (Heteroptera): Stink bugs are sucking pests. They primarily attack soybean during the reproductive

stages and prefer the developing seeds.

Aphids (Aphis glycines): It is a sucking pest. Aphid reproduces itself very rapidly and its colonies grow at a

very fast rate. It can produce 15-18 generations through the soybean growing season. Aphids transfer virus

infections.

Cutworms (Noctuidae): There are several cutworm species that can damage soybean plants. They can do

extensive devastating in soybean fields. Young caterpillars chew holes in leaves, the larger larvae cut young

plants above ground level or in the soil.

Cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera): It is a highly polyphagous pest, and it can damage also soybean.

Bollworm attacks soybean mainly from flowering period. The caterpillars may feed on foliage, young shoots,

flowers or developing pods. The yield loss may be significant in case of severe damage.

Pea podborer (Etiella zinckenella): Female moths lay their eggs one by one on green young pods. The

caterpillar lives inside the pod and feeds on developing seeds.

Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): Symptoms are tiny yellow spots on leaves, webbing can be seen on the

leaves. Severely infected leaves turn yellow, then brown and they drop off. Soybean plants injured by mites

mature early and produce smaller seeds. Spider mites typically flourish in hot, dry weather.

Pest control:


• ploughing down crop residues


PRODUCTION


• pest-free seed





14. Weeds and weed control of soybean

Mechanical weed control in soybeans is the inter-row cultivation (could be effective).

Chemical weed control: If soybeans germinate and grow rapidly, weeds can be shaded out. However, the

relatively slow early growth necessities the preemergent chemical weed control, usually. Preemergent herbicides

can be used at sowing or shortly after it. Soybeans may be injured by preemergent applications of herbicides if

they are not sown at least 3.5 cm deep. In dry spring the pre-emergent treatments has weak effect.

Many herbicides are sold. Postemergent herbicides should be chosen specially to the weeds which are grown on

the field. Results of chemical weed control depend on environmental conditions, rates used, application

techniques, the weed flora and severity of weed pressure.

Proper weed identification is important for adequate chemical use. There is critical growth period (V2) for post-

emergent chemical weed control. Do not apply postemergent herbicides to leaves that are wet from dew, rain, or

irrigation, because they may cause burn, speckling, or necrosis on the soybean‟s foliage.

There are also glufosinate and glyphosate resistant soybean varieties.

Most dangerous weeds on soybean fields:

Barnyard grass(Echinochloa crus-galli)

Foxtail species(Setaria spp.)

Millet species(Panicum spp.)

T4:

Redroot pigweed(Amaranthus retroflexus)

White goosfoot(Chenopodium album)


G1:

Couch grass(Agropyron repens)

Johnson grass(Sorghum halepense)

Common reed(Phragmites communis)

G3:


Field bindweed(Convolvulus arvensis)

15. Irrigation of soybean


PRODUCTION


Yields of soybean are determined by the availability and use of water. Irrigation increases yield stability. The

effect of irrigation on yields can vary season to season depending on varieties, weather conditions, soil type, and

management practices.

Critical period of water supply is the flowering-fruiting (R1-R5.5). Each time drought stress occurs, yield

reductions in some amount will occur. Water-deficit stress reduces the maximum seed number in soybeans.

It is essential for soybean the high air humidity in flowering period.

Inter-row cultivation is recommended for aeration of soil on irrigated fields. Lodging may occur more likely in

irrigated situations, which can reduce yield.

6.4. táblázat - Table 16.Water use of soybean

Development stages Water use (mm/day)

Germination, emergence 1-2.5

Rapid vegetative growth 2-5

Flowering to pod fill (full canopy) 5-6

Maturity to harvest 1-2

16. Harvesting of soybean

Harvest should begin soon after maturity to reduce seed shatter and maintain good seed quality. Soybeans ripen

in September (in Hungary) when pods are dry and seed moisture is less than 16 %. Combine should be adjusted

to match crop and field situation.


splitting. Excessive forward speed may also cause excessive shatter and stubble loss. Combines have a fixed

sickle speed. As forward speed increases, cutting height increases (rapidly), causing more gathering loss.

Seed moisture content should be 14 percent or less for safe storage.

Proper harvesting

• No skipped (uncut), standing soybean strips between combine passes

• Low field loss (seedrain)

• Very little foreign matter can reach the grain tank

• Few, if any, split soybeans in the grain tank

• Soybean stalks that discharge from the combine fairly intact, not "chewed up," suggest that threshing

adjustments are good

• Only immature "green" beans are left in pods behind the combine

• Skilled control of the combine loading rate, fan speed and sieve settings may eliminate light, low-quality seed

or other foreign material

Harvesting losses:

Preharvest losses

• caused by lodging and shattering


PRODUCTION


• in most years about 0.25 %

Shatter loss at combine header

• when the header is operated improperly or the crop tends to shatter easily

• increase with crop dryness

• reel speed is too fast or the reel is positioned too far forward

• 2 % acceptable, but average losses are 5 % or more

Stubble loss

• many pods are left on the stubble because they have been missed by the cutterbar

• using a flexible cutterbar decreases this loss

• should be no more than 0.75 %, average losses are 1.5 % or more

Lodged or loose stalk loss

• seeds left in the pods on downed stalks

• should be only about 1 %

• can reduce using top condition machine, sharp knife, correct reel height and pickup reel

• average losses are 2- 5 %

Cylinder loss

• beans left in pods that have passed through the machine

• when the seed moisture content is too high or with incorrect cylinder-concave settings

• should be no loss, but improper operation can cause 0.5 % losses

Separation loss

• loose beans passing out of the machine

• can be held to a minimum with the correct blower and sieve settings

• should be to 0.25 % but can be as high as 0.5 %

6.5. ábra - Figure 36.Processing scheme of soybean


PRODUCTION


17. Question s related to the integrated soybean production

1. Where does the soybean origin from?

2. Explain the morphology of the soybean plant!

3. What plant family does the soybean belong to?

4. What climatic conditions prefer the soybean?

5. What is the nutrient demand of the soybean?

6. What are the sowing data of the soybean?

7. What are the most dangerous diseases of soybean?

8. What are the data of the soybean sowing?

9. What are the main steps of the soybean processing?


7. fejezet - Week 8. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER PULSES (CHICKPEA, BEANS)

1. Bean production

Origin of bean

Bean is originated from Mexico, Peru and Bolivia. It is important food from 8,000 years BC. The progenitor of

common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is Phaseolus aborigineus that lives wild in the mountains of Honduras,

Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and is very similar to common bean. It is grown in Europe from the end of the XVth

century, after the voyages of Christopher Columbus.

2. Uses of bean

• Food

dry bean, staple food in many countries

green beans (French beans)

3. Taxonomical classification of the beans







Genus: Phaseolus Bean (50-60 species)

Phaseolus vulgaris L. Common bean

Phaseolus vulgaris L. conv. nanus Bush type bean

Phaseolus vulgaris L. conv. vulgaris Vining type bean

Phaseolus coccineus L. Scarlet runner bean

Phaseolus lunatus L. Limabean

Phaseolus acutifolius L. Tepary bean

Phaseolus polyanthus L. Year-long bean

7.1. ábra - Figure 37.The main bean producers of the world (Faostat database, 2010)

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER

PULSES (CHICKPEA, BEANS)


7.2. ábra - Figure 38.The yield of main bean producers of the world (Faostat database,

2010)

4. Morphology of bean

Roots:

Bean develops a branched taproot that penetrates 80 – 140 cm deep into the soil. The main root mass can be

found in 60 – 80 cm depth in the soil. There are root nodules (2-4 mm) on the roots. In the root nodules live

Rhizobium phaseoli nitrogen fixing bacteria.

Stem:

The bean plant may be bushy (20-40 cm high) or climbing (2-4 m high/long). There are two growth types in

bean varieties, determinate or indeterminate.

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



The stem is branching, cylindrical or slightly angular. Its colour is light or deep green.

Leaves:

Bean has compound leaf, which usually consists of 3 leaflets. The leaf arrangement is alternate. There are stalk-

like petioles at the base of the leaves.

Inflorescence

7.3. ábra - Figure 39.Bean

The inflorescence may be terminal or axillary. It is raceme of racemes. The single flower is papillionaceous, it

consists of 5 petals. The colour of the flowers may be white, yellow, red or purple. Bean is self-pollinated plant.

Fruit:

The fruit of the bean is pod (variable in shape and colour). Pods are 10–30 cm long, usually they develop in

pairs at the base of the leaves. There are 4–30 seeds in one pod. Seeds vary widely in colour, they may be white,

red, brown, black, cream and their combinations.

Seeds can germinate just in ripening stage.

5. Nutrient content of dry bean seed

Protein: 20-26 %


Fat: 1.0-1.5 %

Minerals: 3.4-3.8 %

-carotene)

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



7.4. ábra - Figure 40.Seeds of speckled bean variety

7.5. ábra - Figure 41.Seeds of Hungarian liver bean variety

6. Climatic conditions of bean

Bean prefers warm climate. Plant will damage below 5 °C and die at 0- +1 °C. The minimum temperature to

germination is 10 °C, the optimum is 28-32 °C. Uniform and rapid germination will occur at 12-14 °C soil

temperature.

At flowering stage it requires 20-25 °C and >70 % air humidity. Buds and flowers are dropped off in hot and dry

weather.

Varieties have different light requirement. There are long-daylength, short-daylength and daylength –neutral

varieties. European varieties are daylength-neutral, generally.

Bean has weak roots; in consequence it requires constant adequate moisture in its root zone. Droughty

conditions significantly decreases yield usually, but there are relatively drought tolerant varieties. Transpiration

coefficient: 400-450 l/kg.

7. Soil conditions of bean

Bean prefers the moderately loose soils with pH around neutral or slightly alkaline. It is important the Ca

content in the upper layer of the soil. Lime should be spread before the soil preparation process on soils which

has Ca deficiency.

Good soils:

good water and nutrient balance, adequate Ca content

chernozem, alluvial soils, brown forest soils

Not suitable soils:

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



sandy soils, very acidic soils, very heavy soils, water-logged soils

8. Crop rotation of bean

The most frequent forecrop for bean is wheat. Bean or other pulses should be grown once in every 4 years on

same field (important!). Bean is good forecrop for most crops.

• Good forecrops: cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley), potato, sweet corn

• Moderate forecrops: maize (herbicide residues!) Bean is very sensitive to residues of maize herbicides.

• Bad forecrops: sunflower, sudangrass, sorghums, pulses, tomato, tobacco

9. Soil preparation

Bean requires well prepared, clod-free seedbed. It is essential the adequate moisture content of the soil in the

sowing depth to uniform and rapid germination.

After early forecrop, with low plant residues:

• Stubble stripping + closing (cultivator + ring-shaped roll)


• Primary tillage (ploughing (26-28 cm deep) or loosening + ploughing)

• Integrated preparation

• Seedbed preparation (combinator)

After late harvested forecrop, with many residues:



• Ploughing (26-28 cm deep)

• Combined preparation, levelling

• Seedbed preparation

10. Nutrient supply

Bean‟s nitrogen demand is high, but it requires low level nitrogen fertilization, due to its symbiotic bacteria.

Bean plants can fix up to 60 kg nitrogen in a hectare. In case of first time crops the seeds should be inoculated

with Rhizobium bacteria.

Bean has relatively weak root system therefore it continuously needs easily uptakeable nutrients in the root zone

during the growing season.

Potassium fertilizer should not be KCl because bean is sensitive to chlorine. K2SO4 should be applied instead of

KCl.

Specific demand

Bean plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg seed +

straw:

N: 5.5 (kg/100 kg)

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



P2O5: 2.5 (kg/100 kg)

K2O: 4.0 (kg/100 kg)

CaO: 3.8 (kg/100 kg)


N: 30 – 70

P2O5: 60 – 100

K2O: 60 – 120

11. Sowing of bean

The sowing should begin when the soil temperature in the 10 cm depth reaches 10-12 °C. Late sowing results

yield decreasing. Bean shows epigeal germination habit, the cotyledons develop above the ground level. Deep

sowing leads to uneven germination and weak seedlings.

Bean varieties have a wide range of seed size and 1000 seed mass (200-400 g).

7.1. táblázat - Table 17.Sowing data of bean

Sowing time: 1 – 10 May


Depth (cm): 3 – 4 (epigeal)

Seed rate (million/ha): 450-500 thousand/ha

1000 seed mass (g): 200-400

12. Diseases of bean

Bean leaf roll virus BLRV: The virus causes stunting and yellowing of bean. Sometimes upward leaf-rolling

appears accompanied by interveinal yellowing.

Bean yellow mosaic virus BYMV: The symptom is bright yellow to green mosaic or mottle appearance of

infected leaves. The virus is transmitted by several species of aphids.

Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris): The symptom is greasy, water-soaked spots on the infected leaves

and pods. Bacterial blight is favoured by moderate to warm temperatures, high moisture and plant wounds.

Leaf and pod spot (Ascochyta blight) (leaf, stem, pod) (Ascochyta rabiei, A. phaseolorum): Symptom is

irregular tan spots usually on the leaves. This disease is caused by a complex of three fungus species. It can

affect all parts of the plants above ground. Ascochyta blight may cause significant yield loss worldwide.

Rust (Uromyces appendiculatus,): Numerous brown pustules appear on the leaf, filled with spore mass. It rarely

causes serious damage but plant‟s is vigor reduced. There are several resistant bean varieties.

Downy mildew (Peronospora sp.): The symptoms are characteristic pale patches on the surface of the leaf.

Greyish mold appears on the underside. Downy mildew is the most dangerous disease of some bean production

area.

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni): Symptoms are white, powdery patches mainly on the leaves but it may

attack all parts of the plant above ground. The spots grow rapidly and can cover the entire leaf finally. It has

significant economic importance in some areas only.

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Colletotrichum blight(anthracnose) (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum): Red to dark brown, sunken lesions

appear on the above ground parts of the plant. Severely affected plants show reduced growth and produce very

low yields. It is favoured by cool weather and wet conditions.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): Brownish-red lesions appear at the base of the stem or on the rootneck.

It is a soil-borne fungus. Infected plants are stunted and usually die. The disease is favoured by high soil

temperature and high moisture content.

Control:

• crop rotation


• disease-free seed




13. Pests of bean

Longhorned weevils (Sitona lineata, Sitona crinita): The larva and the adult weevil can be harmful to bean.

Adult pests feed on the leaves of the bean chewing large holes into them. Larvae feed on root nodules reducing

significantly the nitrogen fixation for the plant.

Aphids (many species) (Acyrtosiphon pisum, Aphis fabae): They live in colonies and suck sap from bean

plants. Severely attacked leaves and shoots are distorted and covered with honeydew. The damaged buds and

flowers do not produce pods. They are dangerous virus vectors.

Bean bruchid (Acanthoscelides obtectus): Bean bruchid is a serious pest of common bean. Larvae develop

within the seeds of the bean. Adults emerge through a window cut in the testa in stored bean. Heavy infestation

can result a large number of holed seeds.

Bean leaf beetle (Cerotoma trifurcata): It is a chrysomelid leaf beetle that varies in color and feed on foliage

and pods of bean. The larvae feed on the nodules of the bean‟s roots. The defoliation and feeding on pods of

adult beetles causes direct economically important damage.

Bean fly (Phorbia platura): The maggots feed on the young seedlings in the soil during the emergence or

shortly after it. Seed treatment with insecticide can control its damage.

Pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera): It is a serious pest of the beans. The caterpillars feed on buds, flowers, pods

and developing seeds of the bean. It can cause severe damage.

Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): They are tiny sucking pests. In case of severe infection the affected leaves

turn to silvery-gray colour and are covered by web of the mites. They can transfer pathogenic plant viruses.

Cutworms (Noctuidae) (Mamestra sp., Heliothis sp.): The larvae (caterpillars) can cause severe damage on

seedlings and young plants by chewing on or cutting them. There are several species that can attack bean.

Mostly they are active at night.

Pest control:


• ploughing down crop residues

• pest-free seed


Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER







Beans are poor competitors to weed, because they are slow growing. Weed control options are limited, due to

their herbicide sensitivity. There are great differences between the varieties in herbicide tolerance. Broadleaf

weeds can control applying pre-emergent herbicides.

Most important weeds:

Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)

Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia)

Foxtail species (Setaria spp.)

Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus)

White goosfoot (Chenopodium album)

Velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti)

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense)

Cockleburs (Xanthium spp.)

15. Harvesting of dry bean

Harvest begins in July-August when pods are dry and seed moisture is less than 18-20 %. Beans can be

desiccated chemically if it was necessary.


splitting.


16. Chickpea production

Origin of chickpea

Chickpea has its origin in southeastern Turkey and Syria. It has been found in Middle Eastern archeological

sites dated at 7,500–6,800 BC. It was widely cultivated in India, the Mediterranean area, the Middle East, and

Ethiopia since antiquity.

17. Uses of chickpea

• Food

Chickpea is important food in many countries. It is grown in more than 50 countries.

Hummus is staple food in the Middle East and Arabic world.

It is also been consumed as green vegetable.

• Feed: It is important and valuable grain feed in developing countries

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



18. Taxonomical classification of the chickpea


Genus: Cicer Chickpea

Cicer arietinum L. Chickpea (Desi and Kabuli types)

19. Nutrient content of chickpea seed

Protein: 20-25 %


Fat: 5.0-7.2 % (most of it is polyunsaturated)

Minerals: 2.8-3.5 %

Vitamins (C, B1, B2 vitamins, β-carotene)

7.6. ábra - Figure 42.Chickpea with developing pods

7.7. ábra - Figure 43.Flower of chickpea

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



7.8. ábra - Figure 44.Chickpea seeds

20. Climatic conditions of chickpea

There are two types of chickpea are grown in the world. They have different requirements regarding to growing

conditions. Kabuli type varieties are grown in temperate regions while Desi type ones are grown in semi-arid

tropical regions.

The optimum temperature ranges between 18-26 °C. Some cultivars can tolerate temperatures as low as -9.5°C

in early stages.

Chickpea can grow in areas where the average rainfall is 600-1000 mm.

21. Soil conditions of chickpea

Good soils:

pH: 5.5-8.5

chernozem, brown forest soils, red soils

Not suitable soils:

waterlogged soils, very sodic soils, sandy soils

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



22. Crop rotation of chickpea

Chickpea usually is sown between two cereals in crop rotation. It can be a catch crop in sugarcane fields.

Chickpea should be sown once in every four years. Chickpea is very sensitive to herbicide residues of previous

crop.

23. Nutrient supply of chickpea

Specific demand:

Chickpea plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg seed

+ straw:

N: 5.0 (kg/100 kg)

P2O5: 2.0 (kg/100 kg)

K2O: 4.0 (kg/100 kg)

CaO: 3.5 (kg/100 kg)


N: 40-70

P2O5: 60-80

K2O: 80-100

Chickpea can fix up to 140 kg/ha nitrogen with help of its symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria living in the root

nodules.

24. Sowing of chickpea

Early sowing is beneficial because late sown chickpeas are more likely to suffer from moisture stress during

grain filling period. It shows hypogeal germinating habit, so it should be sown relatively deep. Inoculation with

the correct strain of rhizobia (symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria) can be beneficial in case of first time growing.

7.2. táblázat - Table 18.Sowing data of chickpea




Seed rate (million/ha): 450-500 thousand/ha

1000 seed mass (g): 200-300

25. Diseases of chickpea

Bean leaf roll virus BLRV: It is distributed worldwide. The infected chickpea plants show yellowing,

interveinal chlorosis, leaf rolling, stunting and significant reduction in pod setting. BLRV is transmitted by

aphids.

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Bean yellow mosaic virus BYMV: Symptoms are vein yellowing, green or yellow mosaics on the leaves. Also

apical necrosis, reddening, plant stunting and premature senescence may appear. Infected plants produce very

little seed.

Phoma of chickpea (Phoma medicaginis var. pinodella): Symptoms may be black-brown discolouration of the

root and black lesions at the base of the stem. The above ground symptoms are small, dark tan coloured,

irregular flecks on leaves, stems, and pods. It is potentially a serious disease of chickpea.

Leaf and pod spot (Ascochyta blight) (leaf, stem, pod) (Ascochyta rabiei, A. phaseolorum): Water-soaked pale

spots appear on the leaves. It spreads rapidly under cool and wet conditions. In severe infection the entire plant

dries down suddenly.

Rust (Uromyces ciceris-arietini): There are numerous, small, orange-brown pustules on the leaves. Severely

infected leaves fall down. Rust is usually insignificant economically, but can cause serious yield losses in some

areas.

Downy mildew (Peronospora sp.): Downy mildew can infect chickpea plants at any stage of growth especially

during periods of moist, cool weather. Symptoms are isolated greenish yellow to brown blotches on the upper

surface of leaves, while on the underside, masses of mouse-grey coloured spores are produced.

Botrytis grey mold (Botrytis cinerea): Symptoms are cream coloured lesions on lower leaves. Infected pods are

covered with a grey mouldy mycelium, they will rot and turn brown when dried out.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): Fusarium wilt is a very dangerous disease of chickpea Symptoms are the

discoloration and chlorosis of leaves, then desiccation of the plant and death. Infected roots and stems shows

orange-brown internal discolouration.

Control:

• disease-free seed


• crop rotation




26. Pests of chickpea

Longhorned weevils (Sitona lineata, Sitona crinita): The adult weevils feed on the leaf of chickpea, but usually

do not cause significant damage. The larvae feed on the root nodules in the soil, reducing nitrogen-fixation of

the plant.

Aphids (many species) (Acyrtosiphon pisum, Aphis fabae): They are sucking pests, many species can damage

chickpea. Under favorable conditions they can multiply rapidly and create large colonies, causing stunting and

distortion of leaves and growing shoots. They transmit dangerous plant virus infections.

Bruchid (seed weevil) (Callosobruchus chinensis): Larvae live in and feed on seeds of chickpea. Infested stored

seeds can be recognized by the round exit holes on seedcoat. Control is important after harvesting.

Pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera): The caterpillars of pod borer feed on buds, flowers, pods and developing

seeds of chickpea. In favourable years it can cause significant damage.

Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): Spider mites feed on the leaf by sucking the juices. Leaves become usually

dry and the green colour is lost. Even a minor infestation can have a significant impact on a plant's health.

Cutworms (Noctuidae) (Mamestra sp., Heliothis sp.): The caterpillars cut seedlings or young plants causing

economically significant damage. There are several species that can attack chickpea.

Week 8. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Pest control:



• pest-free seed






Chickpea grows slowly in early stages of development; therefore it is poor competitor with weeds in that period.

Even moderate weed infestation can result in significant yield loss and harvesting problems.

Chickpea is sensitive to herbicides. There are only a few pre-emergent and post-emergent chemicals available to

control weeds on chickpea fields. Pre-emergent chemicals are very dependant on rainfall for activation. The

major problem is the control of broadleaf weeds.

28. Harvesting of chickpea

Harvest can be started in July-August when pods are dry and seed moisture is less than 18-20 %. Chickpea can

be desiccated chemically if it was necessary.

It can be combined directly in the field (especially the tall cultivars). Very low cylinder speeds (350 to 600 rpm)

should be used to reduce splitting.


29. Questions related to the integrated production of other pulses (bean, chickpea)

1. What are the uses of chickpea?

2. What are the data of chickpea sowing?

3. What are the main diseases of the bean?

4. What are the most dangerous pests of the chickpea?

5. How and when can we harvest the bean?


8. fejezet - Week 9. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER PULSES (FABABEAN, LUPINS)

1. Fababean

Origin of the fababean

Fababean is originated in the eastern Mediterranean region in the late Neolithic (about 6,800- 4,500 BC) but

precise evidence is lacking. No closely related wild relative of fababean has ever been identified. There are

several varieties in use in very different regions of the world.

2. Uses of fababean

Fababean is good protein source in the developing countries. In the Mediterranean region it is a common food.

• Food:

young or dry seeds are food in many countries

• Feed:

valuable grain feed for livestock

silage

stubble residue is a valuable nutrition source for stock feed

3. Taxonomical classification of fababean







Genus: Vicia Vetches

Vicia faba L. Fababean, broadbean, favabean

4. Chemical composition of fababean seeds

Protein: 24-32 %


Fat: 2.0-2.5 %

Minerals: 3.0-3.5 %

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER

PULSES (FABABEAN, LUPINS)


5. Climatic conditions of fababean

Fababean grows best in cool, moist condition. Germination starts at minimum 4 °C soil temperature, the

optimum is 25 °C. It does not prefer hot weather, the plant will abort its flowers above 27 °C. Fababean can

tolerate light frosts better than other legumes.

It can be grown on areas with annual rainfall minimum 400 mm.

8.1. ábra - Figure 45.Fababean plant in flowering

6. Soil conditions of fababean

Fababean tolerates acid soils better than other grain legumes but if soil pH is below 5.0 the application of lime is

strongly recommended. It also can tolerate the water-logged conditions rather well. Fababean prefers soils with

pH ranging from neutral to alkaline (6.5-8.0).

Good soils:

good water and nutrient balance, chernozem, alluvial soils, brown forest soils, meadow soils

Not suitable soils:

very loose sandy soils, very acidic soils, very heavy soils

7. Crop rotation of fababean

Fababean should be sown once in every four years on same field. It often follows cereals in crop rotation or is

grown between two cereals.

• Good forecrops: cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, triticale), potato

• Moderate forecrops: maize

• Bad forecrops: sunflower, fababean and other pulses, vegetables

8.2. ábra - Figure 46.Fababean pods

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



8. Soil preparation

Fababean requires well prepared, clod-free seedbed. It is important to take into consideration the weed control

during soil preparation processes. In cloddy seedbed the emergence will be uneven and the plants establish very

slowly.

9. Nutrient supply

Fababean is a legume and lives in symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria. The bacteria live in the root

nodules and can fix aerial nitrogen. The plant needs nitrogen from fertilizer in the first few weeks only.

Specific demand:

Fababean plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg seed

+ straw:

N: 5.2 (kg/100 kg)

P2O5: 2.3 (kg/100 kg)

K2O: 4.6 (kg/100 kg)

CaO: 3.5 (kg/100 kg)


N: 30 – 50

P2O5: 50 – 80

K2O: 60 – 120

10. Sowing of fababean

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Fababean shows hypogeal germination habit therefore it should be sown deep. It is important to sow as early as

possible in spring. Late sowing results in significant decreasing of the yield. The seeds should be inoculated

prior sowing to promote nitrogen fixing, when it is grown first time on the field.

8.1. táblázat - Table 19.Sowing data of fababean

Sowing time: 10 – 25 March (4-7 °C soil temperature)

Row spacing (cm): 24-30 cm


Seed rate (thousand/ha): 550-600 thousand/ha

1000 kernel mass (g): 250-800

11. Diseases of fababean

Bean yellow mosaic virusBYMV: Symptom is vein yellowing, followed by obvious green or yellow mosaic

vein banding with yellowish line patterns.

Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris): It is a widespread disease. Watersoaked lesions develop on the

pods after infection. The infection occurs via seeds or through wounds.

Leaf and pod spot (Ascochyta blight) (leaf, stem, pod) (Ascochyta spp.): Dark coloured spots with light-

brown or grey centre appear on leaves, stems and pods. Affected stems may be weakened and break off. Pod

infection can result in discoloured seed.

Downy mildew (Peronospora sp.): Symptoms are pale green patches on the leaf surface and grayish fluffy

mycelium on underside. Infected plants are stunted. Downy mildew is one of the most common and damaging

diseases of fababeans. It can cause very significant yield losses.

Rust (Uromyces viciae-fabae): It can be identified by numerous small, orange-brown pustules, which appear on

the leaves of infected plants. The pustules are surrounded by yellow halo.

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe spp.): All parts of the plant above ground can be infected. The affected parts are

covered with white powdery film. Under favourable conditions it can develop and spread very quickly.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): First symptom is pale colouration of the infected plants. Later they are

stunted, the leaves shrivel upwards, pods, if developed at all, remained very small. The affected plants often die

before flowering.

Control:

• crop rotation


• plant disease-free seed




12. Pests of fababean

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Longhorned weevils (Sitona spp.): Adults chew circular or semi-circular notches around the leaf edges, mainly

on the young seedlings. Larvae feed below the ground on the root nodules reducing nitrogen fixing capacity.

Aphids (many species) (Aphis fabae, Aphis spp.): Stressed fababean crops are more susceptible to aphid

infestation, especially in hot conditions.

Leaf flea beetles (Sminthurus spp.): These small (2.5 mm) beetles chew little holes into the leaves. It can cause

severe damage in seedlings, later their significance is minimal.

Pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera): The larvae feed on the pods of fababeans and boring down to the

developing seed, resulting in holes. The damage can be severe in favourable conditions. Moths are very good

flyers, they can migrate long distances.

Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): Pale patches can be seen on the leaves. Severe infection causes silvery

discoloration and desiccated spots. Mites prefer warm and dry weather.

Cutworms (Mamestra sp., Heliothis sp.): Caterpillars feed on young plants cutting them just above the ground.

Cut stems are often left lying on the surface. They feed mostly at night.

Pest control:



• pest-free seed






Most dangerous weeds in fababean fields are:







Field bindweed(Convolvulus arvensis)

Velvetleaf(Abutilon theophrasti)

Cockleburs(Xanthium spp.)

Weed control possibilities

Fababeans are poor competitors to weed because they grow slowly, especially in early development stages. The

chemical weed control options are limited due to the herbicide sensitivity of fababean. There are differences

between the varieties in herbicide tolerance.

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Broadleaf weeds are difficult to control.

14. Harvesting of fababean

Harvest begins in August when the pods are brown to black (in Hungary). Desiccation is often required.

Fababeans can be combined directly. Low cylinder speeds (500-550 rpm) should be used to reduce splitting.

Seed moisture content should be below 12 % for safe storage.

15. Lupins

Origin of the lupins

Lupins are originated from the Mediterranean region and North Africa. Perennial lupin species are originated

from southern and western parts of North America.

Cultivation of lupins is believed to date from about 2,000–1,000 BC or earlier in the Mediterranean basin and

the central Andean region of South America (Smartt and Hymowitz 1985).

16. Uses of lupins

• Food

food in many countries

the seeds contain excellent quality proteins

flour, pasta, snack food, tofu, tempe

• Feed:

animal feed (sweet varieties)

lupins are valuable grain feed in aquaculture industry and fish ponds (sweet and bitter varieties)

8.3. ábra - Figure 47.The main lupin producers of the world (Faostat Database, 2010)

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



8.4. ábra - Figure 48.The yield of the main lupin producers (Faostat Database, 2010)

17. Taxonomical classification of the lupins


Genus: Lupinus Lupins (more than 300 annual and perennial species)

Lupinus albus L. White lupin

Lupinus luteus L. Yellow lupin

Lupinus angustifolius L. Blue (Narrowleaf) lupin

Lupinus polyphyllus L. Perennial lupin (garden flower)

18. Morphology of lupins

Roots:

Lupins develop a branched taproot. The main root mass locates in 60 – 80 cm depth in the soil. There are

nodules on the roots (Rhizobium lupini). Lupins can fix 120-180 kg/ha nitrogen with help of their symbiotic

bacteria.

Stem:

The stem is bushy, 50-140 cm high, branching. It is cylindrical or slightly angular in cross section. The colour is

light or deep green.

Leaves:

Lupins have palmately compound leaves. Usually they consist of 5-9 leaflets. The leaf is pubescent.

Inflorescence

The inflorescence develops terminally or axillary. It is a racemose type. The single flower is papillionaceous,

consists of 5 petals, similarly as that of pea or bean.

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



The colour of the flower may be white, yellow, blue or purple. Lupins are mainly self-pollinated plants.

Fruit:

The fruit of lupins is a pod which is variable in shape and colour. It is pubescent similarly as the leaves. Pods are

6 – 11 cm long, usually develop in pairs. There are 3 – 6 seeds in the pod. The seeds vary in colour; they may be

white, yellow, brown, sometimes speckled or mottled.

Bitter lupins contain 1-3 % alkaloids (lupinin, lupinidin, lupanin) that are toxic for warm blooded animals or

humans. Sweet lupins contain 0.1-0.01 % alkaloids only, that low quantity is harmless.

19. Chemical composition of lupin seeds

Protein: 34-45 %


Fat: 4.0-12.0 %

Minerals: 3.0-3.7 %

Bitter lupin varieties contain alkaloids toxic to warm blooded animals. When animals graze lupine stubble,

lupinosis can develop. The disease is caused by a mycotoxin. Symptoms are loss of appetite and icterus.

20. Climatic conditions of lupins

Lupins prefer warm climate. White lupins have the highest requirements regarding to the environmental

conditions. The blue lupins require minimum 2-3 °C, yellow lupins 3-4 °C, white lupins 4-6 °C temperature to

germination. Seedlings can survive -4 - -6 °C in 5-8 leaves stage. Blue lupins have the best tolerance against

cool weather and also against drought.

Heat Unit: 2400-2800 °C. White lupin needs the highest Heat Unit.

Lupins use high amount of water, their water demand is between 450-550 mm. Transpiration coefficient: 600-

800 l/kg.

They require long daylength.

8.5. ábra - Figure 49.Young white lupin plant

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



8.6. ábra - Figure 50.Lupin pods

21. Soil conditions of lupins

There are differences between lupin species in soil requirements. The absence of free Ca-ions is more important

than the actual pH. White lupin varieties have the highest demand on soil quality and require well drained soils.

Yellow lupin can be grown also on acidic poor sandy soils with very low fertility. It is more sensitive to Ca-

content of the soil than white or blue lupins. Sowing on higher pH soils will result in iron chlorosis.

Good soils:

soils with pH 4.5-6.5, acidic soils

acidic sandy soils, Ca-free alluvial soils, brown forest soils, meadow soils

Not suitable soils:

water-logged soils, soils with free Ca-content, alkaline soils, shallow layer soils

22. Crop rotation of lupins

Lupins are often grown rotation with cereals. At least 4 years should be allowed between sowing a lupin crop in

the same field.

• Good forecrops: cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley, triticale)

• Moderate forecrops: maize, sorghums

• Bad forecrops: sunflower, pulses (including lupins), potato, tobacco


Lupins as other large seeded legumes do not require so well prepared seedbed like small seeded legumes. They

need deep cultivation, due to their deep taproot. Mechanical weed control during soil preparation process should

be important element. Due to their high water consumption, water saving tillage is also important. Seedbed

preparation for lupins is very similar to fababean.

24. Nutrient supply of lupins

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



As a legume, lupin can fix aerial nitrogen with help of its symbiotic bacteria living in the root nodules. Nitrogen

fertilizing is required only to provide the early stage (4-5 weeks) nutrient needs, later the plant becomes self-

sufficient from nitrogen. Lupins can fix as high as 120-180 kg nitrogen per hectare.


Lupin species remove the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg seed +

straw:

white lupin yellow lupin blue lupin

N 7.0 kg/100 kg N 7.7 kg/100 kg N 6.2 kg/100 kg

P2O5 2.8 kg/100 kg P2O5 2.1 kg/100 kg P2O5 2.2 kg/100 kg

K2O 3.7 kg/100 kg K2O 4.5 kg/100 kg K2O 3.5 kg/100 kg


white lupin yellow lupin blue lupin

N 30-40 kg/ha N 20-40 kg/ha N 15-30 kg/ha

P2O5 60-80 kg/ha P2O5 60-90 kg/ha P2O5 50-70 kg/ha

K2O 60-90 kg/ha K2O 80-120 kg/ha K2O 50-70 kg/ha

25. Sowing of lupins

Lupins are sensitive to the sowing time, late sowing causes decreasing in yield that can reach 30-40 %. The

sowing depth of white and yellow lupins should not exceed 2-3 cm, while blue lupins can be sown 4 cm deep.

Row spacing is 12 cm in case of blue and yellow lupins. White lupin may be sown in 24-36 cm wide rows with

450-500 thousand/ha seed rate. Seed rate of yellow lupins is between 600-900 thousand/ha, depending on the

growing habit of the variety. Blue lupins can be sown with 800-950 thousand seeds/ha. 1000 seed mass varies in

wide range. Seed inoculation with rhizobia (symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria) can be beneficial not only in first

time lupin, it increase yields in every areas.

8.2. táblázat - Table 20.Sowing data of lupins

Sowing time: 20 March-5 April

Row spacing (cm): 12 - 24 - 36

Depth (cm): 2 – 4 (epigeal)

Seed rate (thousand/ha): 450-950

1000 seed mass (g): 50-450

26. Diseases of lupins

Bean yellow mosaic virusBYMV: The symptom is small translucent spotting and streaking on the leaf surface,

affected leaves are crinkling, the plant often is stunted. Pods become distorted, with uneven surface.

Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris): Water-soaked sunken necrotic areas appear on the leaves and pods.

This disease can cause very significant yield loss in favorable conditions (hot and wet).

Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Leaf and pod spot (Ascochyta blight) (leaf, stem, pod) (Ascochyta spp.): Symptom is the presence of small,

brown round spots on the leaf, stem and pod. The disease can spread by rain splashed spores from infected crops

or volunteer plants. Humid weather conditions or prolonged leaf wetness helps the infection.

Downy mildew (Peronospora sp.): Downy mildew is a common and very damaging disease of lupins in

temperate areas. There are light-green, yellow patches on the upper surface of the leaves, while grey mycelium

develops underside.

Rust (Uromyces lupinicolus): Small, dark brown pustules appear on the leaves, surrounded yellow halo. It is not

significant disease under normal conditions.

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe spp.): There are significant differences between varieties in sensitivity to powdery

mildew. On the surface of infected leaf develops white-gray powdery coating. There are resistant varieties.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): Symptoms are wilting of leaves, brown strikes on the stems. Orange-

brown discolouration can be seen on the cross section of the infected stem (vascular bundles). The infected

plants may die rapidly.

Control:

• crop rotation






27. Pests of lupins

The pests of lupins, their damages and the possibilities to control them are similar as that of fababean. Most

damaging pests are:

Longhorned weevils (Sitona spp.)

Aphids (many species) (Aphis fabae, Aphis spp.)

Leaf flea beetles (Sminthurus spp.)

Pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae)

Cutworms (Mamestra sp., Heliothis sp.)


Dangerous weeds






Week 9. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER




Velvetleaf(Abutilon theophrasti)

Cockleburs(Xanthium spp.)

Weed control

Lupins are poor competitors to weeds, due to their slow growing habit. Weed control options are limited,

because they are sensitive to herbicides and herbicide residues. There are significant differences between the

varieties in herbicide tolerance. Broadleaf weeds are difficult to control on lupins fields. Poor weed control leads

to poor performance in yield.

29. Harvesting

Harvest August-September when pods are dry and seed moisture is less than 18-20 %. Lupine is relatively

resistant to lodging and shattering in normal conditions.

It can be combined directly in the field with properly adjusted harvester. Low cylinder speeds (350 to 400)

should be used to reduce splitting.

Seed moisture content should be below 12 % for safe storage.

30. Questions related to the integrated production of other pulses (fababean, lupins)

1. What are the uses of lupins?

2. What are the data of fababean sowing?

3. What are the main diseases of the fababean?

4. What are the most dangerous pests of the fababean and lupins?

5. How and when can we harvest the fababean and lupins?


9. fejezet - Week 10. INTEGRATED SUNFLOWER PRODUCTION I.

1. General characteristics of oil plant production

The number of oil plants cultivated worldwide exceeds 50. In the case of different climatic and soil conditions,

the production of different oil plants is important. While cereals – except some of them – are the members of the

same family (True grasses – Gramineae), oil plants belong to various families. Basically, in the crop production

practice, different aspects are considered for the classification of the given plant. These are the following:

• the well-determined part of the plant to be processed (seed, fruit, etc.) contains minimum 18-20% plant oil.

• the oil can be obtained from the plant part economically.

In the past decades, the demand for plant oils and the amount of oils dynamically increased. The most important

causes of this growth are:

• The plant oils play an ever-increasing role in human nutrition against animal fats. The plant oils are much

healthier foods than animal fats (they do not raise the cholesterol level, they contain Omega-3 and Omega-6

fatty acids, which are essential for the human body; and they also contain unsaturated fatty acids).

• The amount of industrial utilization of plant oils and the scale of the industrial branches significantly

increased recently. In addition to the traditional branches (dye, textile, etc.), new ones (plastic, cosmetics,

rubber, etc.) need and use herbal oils to increasing extent.

• Among biofuels, the basis of biodiesel production is plant oils (mainly rape oil, but the use of palm,

sunflower, soybean oils, etc. also increases). The world‟s largest biodiesel producers are the EU countries.

• The by-products of plant oil production are valuable fodders. The utilization of these by-products efficiently

serves the satisfaction of the increasing need for animal products.

Herbal oils have various physical and chemical traits, which make their various utilization possible. One of their

most important features is the fatty acid content. Plant oils contain

• saturated fatty acids

• palmitic acid

• stearinic acid

• unsaturated fatty acids

• oilic acid (monounsaturated)

• linoleic acid (diunsaturated)

• linolenic acid (triunsaturated)

In the oil of oil plants, other fatty acids (e.g. erucic acid) can also be found.

The utilizability of the plant oil is significantly influenced by the ratio of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids;

for its characterization, the iodine number is used. Based on iodine number, the following groups of plant oils

are distinguished:

• hardly drying oils (iodine number below 85) – the oils of ricinus, peanut, etc.

• semi-drying oils (iodine number between 85 and 130) – sunflower oil, rape oil, others

• rapidly drying oils (iodine number above 130) – linseed oil, perilla oil, etc.

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SUNFLOWER PRODUCTION I.


The amount of plant and animal fats produced worldwide is close to 150 million tons/year. The majority

(approx. 70-75%) of them are plant oils, the minority is animal fats (approx. 25-30%). The most important

animal fats are beef fat, pig fat, butter and fish oil. Changes took place in the order of the most important oil

plants in the last five years. The amount of soybean oil (the most important before) was exceeded by that of

palm oil, which was in connection with the rapid growth of the area of the plant in the tropical regions.

Unfortunately, this area growth was at the expense of the tropical rainforests, which is unfavourable in terms of

environmental protection. The third most important oil plant of the world is oilseed rape, followed by sunflower.

The importance of the production of other oil plants (e.g. cotton, peanut, sesame, olive, etc.) mainly increases in

certain geographical regions, where they can be even the most important ones.

In Hungary, the most important oil plant is sunflower. The sowing area of rape considerably increased during

the last decade. The sowing area of sunflower is 500-600 thousand ha, while that of rape varies between 200 and

300 thousand ha (average), depending on the cropyear. The sowing areas of the other oil plants produced in

Hungary (oil flax, oil pumpkin, poppy, mustard, peanut, ricinus, etc.) can vary between some hundred and some

thousand ha.

The production of oil plants in the domestic crop production is of increasing importance. The domestic crop

production is characterized as cereal focused, i.e. the sowing areas of spiked cereals and maize account for the

67-68% of the arable land. To compensate this and to implement rational crop production, only one plant group

is suitable: the oil plants, which are located on the 19-21% of the arable land. The sowing area of the other plant

groups is negligible in our country (legumes: ~2%, tuberous plants: ~1%, fodder crops: ~5%, other plants: ~2-

3%). Therefore, oil plants can be considered as important agronomical counterbalance against cereals.

The cultivation of oil plants – by the employment of smaller machines – can be fully carried out by the

equipments and tools applied in wheat and maize production. No big investments are needed and the utilization

of the existing machines also increases. The coupling of cereal and oil plant production is also favourable in

terms of work organization (wheat-rape, maize-sunflower), since the peaks of the works do not meet, the field

works can be harmonized and carried out at optimal time.

The oil plants have excellent (sunflower) and average (rape) ecological adaptability, thus they can be cultivated

relatively widely on areas of different weather and soil conditions.

The constant demand for oil plants makes the safe selling of their crops possible. Their harvest takes place

relatively early, and this early income can contribute to the improvement of the management of the current

assets of the given factory.

The production of oil plants increases the biodiversity of the given plant too. It contributes to the establishment

of the biotopic conditions of the useful organisms in nature. In addition, rape and sunflower are very important

melliferous plants. Therefore, oil plants help the efficient practical implementation of sustainable crop

production.

2. The importance of sunflower production

In the past decades, considerable changes took place in the eating habits of the inhabitants of developed

countries, partially affected the populations of developing countries too. In the developed countries, the

consumption of cereals decreased, while that of the vegetables and fruits increased; the use of animal fats is

being replaced by that of plant oils to a great extent. Currently, the consumption of plant oils in the developed

countries is 20-25/kg/capita/year, while in the developing ones, it is more moderate (5-10/kg/capita/year). In

Hungary, oil consumption is 18-19/kg/capita/year, and in addition, the use of animal fats is at the level of 19-

21/kg/capita/year. The world‟s plant oil production is growing very dynamically, partially due to its increasing

role in human nutrition (healthier than animal fats) and partially due to its broadening industrial use and

increasing significance in terms of alternative fuel (biodiesel) production. In the world, several plants are

cultivated for oil. Currently, the most important oil plants in the world are the following: oil palm, soybean, rape

and sunflower. In Hungary – due to our ecological conditions –, the production of sunflower is the determinant

one, but the sowing area of rape also significantly increased recently.

9.1. ábra - Figure 51.

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The genetic center of sunflower can be found in North America (the states of Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri,

Nebraska, North and South Dakota). It got into Europe after the exploration of America. It has been cultivated

for a long time in the garden as an ornamental plant. Its field cultivation for oil began only in the second half of

the 1800s in Eastern Europe, and later on the other continents too.


Sunflower is an especially valuable field crop utilizable in many ways. Its achene is rich in oil. The oil contents

of the currently produced hybrids vary between 47 and 54%. Its oil is half-drying (iodine number: 120-135)

containing valuable vitamins (A, D and E) too. The protein content of its achene is 17-18%. Its oil is used

primarily as food (edible oil, margarine), but its industrial utilization is also broadening (dye, soap, cosmetics,

plastic, textile, etc.). Biodiesel can be manufactured out of its oil (primarily of HO hybrids). The sunflower cake

and seed-grind generated during oil production are valuable fodders for the ruminant and monogastric animals.

The whole plant is applicable for green and silage fodder, although its nutritional value and fermentability are

behind those of silage maize. Its utilization as green manure is less. The achene is used as bird food or in human

nutrition, roasted or as the base material of the baking (breads with seeds within) or confectionery industry.

Sunflower is an excellent melliferous plant; settling bees besides sunflower fields promotes pollination too.

In the world, sunflower is produced on approximately 25-27 million ha; the amount of the harvested crop is 33-

35 million tons. The largest producers are Russia (~25%), the EU-27 countries (~20%), The Ukraine (~18%),

and Argentina (~15%). Among the EU-27 countries, France, Hungary, Romania, Spain and Bulgaria are the

largest sunflower producers. Currently, the utilization of sunflower oil in the EU exceeds the production, and the

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Western European countries are considered as steady export markets for the domestic sunflower. The most

important sunflower exporters are Russia (~25%), The Ukraine and Argentina, while the EU needs significant

import.




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In Hungary, sunflower production was minimal before the Second World War (2-6 thousand ha). Due to the

military economy during the Second World War, its sowing area considerably increased (around 100 thousand

ha). This size was characteristic of the 1950-1960-1970s. A significant growth of the area began in the 1980s

and the sowing area was around 550 thousand ha in the 2000s. Due to the newer hybrids involved in the

production and the development of the agrotechnique, the yield averages of sunflower increased recently. The

current country average of about 2.5 t/ha consists of significant differences either between the different factories

or cropyears, which means that the yield potential is not utilized.

9.6. ábra - Table 21.

Although a considerable re-organization is observed in the production regions of the two most important

domestic oil plants, however, we – simplifying the issue to a great extent – can conclude that sunflower of good

adaptability and drought resistance can be cultivated with higher stability and better yield results mainly on the

Great Plain and adjacent areas, while the more demanding and sensitive oilseed rape, in Transdanubia.


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3. Botany and plant physiology of sunflower

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) belongs to the order Asterales, the family of asters (Compositae). The basic

chromosome number of the species of the Helianthus genus is n = 17; diploid, tetraploid, hexaploid, annual and

perennial species can be found in the order (a total of approx. 70). The wild Helianthus species are primarily

used in breeding (resistance sources).


The powerful main root system of sunflower penetrates to a 2-3-m depth into the soil. The widespread root

system ensures the excellent utilization of the water and nutrient supply of the soil, it has especially good

adaptability and drought resistance.

Its stem is uprising, powerful, the inner part is filled with stalk tissue, covered with setae. Its average height

varies between 60 and 250 cm (the height of the older food varieties can exceed even 300 cm). The average

height of the oil hybrids is 140-190 cm.

The leaf number varies between 12 and 40 (usually 25-30), their colours are from goose-green to dark green. Its

LAI value can vary between 3.0 and 5.0 m2/m2, depending on the ecological and agrotechnical conditions and

the genotype.

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Its foliage is a characteristic aster. The ray flowers are located on the edge of the foliage in 1-2 rows, yellow in

colour, sterile, their function is to bait the insects. The tubular flowers are androgynous, fertile; their number

varies between 600 and 1200. Sunflower is mainly a heterogamic plant, pollinated by insects.

Its fruit is the achene, consisting of mesocarp and seed. The mesocarp:seed ratio of the modern hybrids is

15:85%. The thousand achene weight of the oil hybrids is 60-80 grams, those of the edible sunflowers varies

between 110 and 170 grams. As a result of breeding, the phytomelan layer found in the mesocarp provides

protection against the damages caused by the European sunflower moth.

4. The biological bases of sunflower production

The biological bases of sunflower production considerably changes during the past decades. In Hungary, local

varieties (Lovászpatonai, Mezőhegyesi, etc.) of low productivity and oil content were produced up to the 1950s.

The bred varieties (Kisvárdai, Iregi csíkos, etc.) were the determining ones in the 1950-1960s. A significant

change took place after the appearance of the varieties of high oil content in the 1970s. These Soviet (VNIIMK

6540, Csakinszkij 269, etc.) then Hungarian (GK 70, etc.) varieties were adequate for industrial production

(plant height: 160-180 cm) and their oil contents were high (around 50%). Afterwards, in short time, genic and

cytoplasmic hybrids became dominant (first, French, Yugoslavian, Romanian, and also the competitive

Hungarian ones), which play determining role in the current sunflower production too. Among the production of

large-seeded, edible sunflowers, the number of hybrids is increasing and also varieties are produced to a

negligible extent.


The domestic sunflower hybrid portfolio is wide (above 100). The hybrids are of different vegetation period

(very early, early, medium ripening), of different oil content (LO = low oil content, HO = high oil content),

possessing various advantages in terms of plant protection (PR = peronospora resistant, OR = nodding

broomrape resistant, CL = can be produced by Clearfield weed clearing, SU = can be produced by Express weed

clearing technology); and they are also different in terms of other valuable traits.

During the selection of sunflower hybrids, the following aspects are recommended to be taken into

consideration

• Yield stability

• tolerance against biotic stress factors (leaf, stem and head diseases, weeds)

• adaptation to abiotic factors (weather, soil)

• agronomical traits (stem strength, homogeneity of the stock in space and time, water releasing ability,

shedding ability, etc.)

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• vegetation time

• Productivity

• potential and realized productivity

• yield stability

• reaction to agrotechnical factors

• Crop quality

• potential and realized oil content

• stability of oil content

• oil composition

• other quality parameters (protein content, etc.)

In the past decades, not only the quantitative change of the sunflower hybrid portfolio, i.e. significant increase in

the number of hybrids, took place but also qualitative changes could be observed. Due to the higher productivity

and oil content, the modern hybrids became more demanding in terms of agrotechnique. Although, the

adaptability of the hybrids is more favourable compared to those of other field crops, however, the increase of

the agrotechnical input demand has to be taken into consideration.


5. The ecological conditions of sunflower production

Sunflower is a warmth-demanding plant. During its vegetation period, it needs 1900-2500oC useful heat sum

(its assimilation heat threshold is +5°C). In spite of its warmth-demand, it tolerates cooling well in the first third

of the vegetation period, and even the mild frosts as a young seedling (-2 – -4°C). In the period of intensive

vegetative development, it is warmth-demanding. For its optimal development, 18-20°C in May, 20-22°C in

June, while in the generative stage (flowering-fertilization-achene development) 22-24°C in July and 21-23°C in

August are favourable. Sunflower can tolerate high air temperature well but also with physiological limitations.

The canicular heat (above 26-27°C daily temperature) unfavourably influences the generative processes,

decreases yield and oil content.

Sunflower is of pronouncedly light demanding. Basically it is indifferent, but genotypes demanding short- and

long-day lighting also exist.

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Sunflower is of medium water demand but of especially good adaptability. Its water uptake during the

vegetation period is 500-550 mm, its transpiration coefficient is 470-550 L/1 kg dry material. Due to its

extremely widespread, deep penetrating rootage of high sucking power, sunflower possesses good drought

resistance. It produces high yields in cropyears of average or slightly dry weather, when the different diseases

occur in the stocks only to a lesser extent. It has a relatively high water demand during germination-emergence

(it is important not to dry out the seedbed) but the critical stages of its absolute water demand are the intensive

vegetative development from the beginning of June to the beginning of July (it takes up 40% of its total water

demand, approx. 200 mm water during this period) and the two weeks after flowering (at achene-filling, it takes

up the 25-30% of its total water demand, 120-150 mm water). The moist weather during flowering is

unfavourable due to the decrease of entomophily and the appearance of diseases. The wet weather at the end of

August-beginning of September results in the increased infection of the stocks, slows down the ripening

processes and decreases the amount and oil content of the crop.

Sunflower has excellent adaptability to the soils of different ability, ensured by its extremely widespread rootage

and the significant amount of root hairs formed along the whole vegetation period. Therefore, sunflower is a

plant of average or weaker soils. It is widely produced on brown forest, grass and silty, and on sodic and sandy

soils of better quality. However, its cultivation on extreme soils bears risks. Recently, sunflower production

spreads on chernozem soils, due to crop rotation causes, the spreading of genotypes of higher productivity and

demands, and also because of the more intensive agotechnique.

6. The elements of the production technology of sunflower

Crop rotation

Sunflower is not very demanding in terms of preceding crops. During the selection of the preceding crop, three

basic aspects have to be definitely taken into consideration:

• due to severe infection problems, at least five years have to be elapsed after sowing it after itself

• the sunflower and the preceding crop must not have common diseases

• the preceding crops must not increase the N supply of the soil since nitrogen overdose increases its

susceptibility for diseases

Since it is a plant of spring sowing, there is enough time to conduct the soil cultivation and other agrotechnical

operations after either the early preceding crops or the ones removed later. The most important preceding crops

of sunflower are the following:

• good preceding crops

• spiked cereals (wheat, winter and spring barley, triticale, rye, oat)

• sweetcorn

• average preceding crops

• silage and green corn

• grain corn

• silage and grain sorghum

• poor preceding crops

• N enriching plants (legumes – pea, bean, lentil, etc.; perennial legumes – alfalfa, red clover, etc.)

• plants with common diseases and plants whose root remains provide survival for the different pathogens

(common diseases – rape, soybean, tobacco, cannabis, flax, horticultural plants: tomato, capsicum, etc.;

plant remains – sugarbeet, potato)

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• self (minimum five years after itself).

Soil cultivation

Sunflower needs deeply cultivated, good root bed and settled, small-crumbed, wet seedbed. In addition to the

demands of the plant, the depth of basic tillage is determined by the soil features, its structure, lamination and

the need for periodic deep cultivation. Basically, sunflower needs cultivation depth of around 30 cm, which can

be ensured by trenching (plough) and loosening. Water preservation is of fundamental importance during

tillering. The operations of soil cultivation are determined by the removal time of the preceding crop and the

amount and quality of the stem and root remains left behind.

In the soil cultivation system of sunflower, the following operation groups are distinguished:

• preparatory operations

• basic tillage

possibilities for basic tillage:

• autumn ploughing (28-32 cm)

• loosening (30-35 cm) + ploughing (20-24 cm)

• periodic deep cultivation (35-40 cm)

• closing basic operations:

• in autumn, the rough closing of basic tillage can be carried out if possible

• in spring, the closing of the area (without treading) has to be carried out as soon as possible

• seedbed preparation

During spring, the use of discs is also not recommended in sunflower. If reasonable due to the soil state, then

field cultivators, spade harrows or combined tools (mulch-tiller, Carrier, etc.) can be applied for the deeper

cultivation in spring.


7. Nutrient supply

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Sunflower is a nutrient demanding plant. However, it can utilize the natural nutrient supply – partially on soils

of weaker quality too – by its very wide, aggressive rootage, which has to be taken into consideration while

determining the fertilizer doses to be applied. In the nutrient supply of sunflower, the following factors play

important role:

• biological aspects

• especially wide root system of high sucking power

• constantly developing (up to the end of vegetation period) rootage of excellent nutrient recovering ability

• high nutrient uptake, moderate fertilizer demand

• harmonic supply of macro-, meso- and microelements

• agronomical aspects

• growing area specific fertilization

• hybrid specific fertilization

• optimal yield amount

• yield stability

• maximal oil content

• interactive effects with other agrotechnical elements

• other aspects

• environmental protection

• food safety

• profitability

In addition to the macroelements (N, P, K), sunflower absorbs a significant amount of mesoelements (Ca, Mg)

and microelements (primarily B, but also Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, etc.) during its vegetation period. The uptake

dynamics of macroelements considerably differ. For the generation of the vegetative mass, which forms the

physiological basis of high yields, nitrogen is of essential importance. The excessive nitrogen supply is

disadvantageous as it increases the appearance of diseases and decreases stem strength. Phosphorus is especially

important for root development at the beginning of the vegetation period and later for flowering and achene

development processes. Sunflower is a pronouncedly potassium demanding crop, the absorbed potassium

remains mainly in the vegetative plant parts on the areas at the end of the vegetation period. Boron plays crucial

role in the fertilization processes.


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The specific nutrient demand of sunflower can be characterized by the following values:

N 4.0 kg/100 kg main and by-product

P2O5 2.0 kg/100 kg main and by-product

K2O 7.0 kg/100 kg main and by-product

CaO 3.0 kg/100 kg main and by-product

MgO 1.7 kg/100 kg main and by-product

The majority of the soils used for sunflower production are of acidic pH. On these soils, the application of Ca-

and Mg containing liming materials pronouncedly helps the applied fertilizers to take effect.

In the fertilization practice of sunflower, livestock manure is not applied due to the excessive N replenishment.

The nutrient demand of sunflower is satisfied by chemical fertilizers. The active substance amounts replenished

by chemical fertilizers in the case of sunflower are the following, depending on soil state:


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The total amounts of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers are recommended to be applied as basic fertilizers in

autumn. On weaker soils, the application of P containing starter fertilizer, simultaneously with sowing, can be

successful. The application of the 20-40% of the whole amount of nitrogen is recommended as basic fertilizer,

while the remaining part in spring, before sowing. The considerable Ca and Mg demands of sunflower are

satisfied by liming. The 2-3 t/ha CaCO3 dose of maintainer liming is the most efficient if applied in spring and

worked shallowly into the soil while preparing the seedbed. In connection with the plant protection operations –

under certain conditions –, the leaf manuring (containing mainly boron + other microelements) of sunflower can

be successful.

In addition to yield amount, nutrient supply markedly influences the oil content of sunflower as well.


8. Questions related to integrated sunflower production

1. What can oil crops be used for?

2. What are the most important oil crops in the World and in Hungary?

3. What are the important ecological factors in sunflower production?

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4. What are the important agronomic traits of sunflower genotypes

5. How can you classify the forecrops in integrated sunflower production?

6. What tillage systems can we use in sunflower production?

7. What are the most important macro-, meso- and microelement in sunflower?

8. What are the elements of fertilization in integrated sunflower production?


10. fejezet - Week 11. INTEGRATED SUNFLOWER PRODUCTION II.

1. Sowing technology

The sowing of sunflower needs special carefulness. The mistakes made in the case of this agrotechnical element

cannot be corrected during the later periods of the vegetation period or only to a little extent.

The production technologies of the high oil content and edible varieties/hybrids differ. Sunflower has to be sown

in optimal time; either the early or late sowing (seeding) is unfavourable for the development, pathological state,

crop formation and oil enrichment. At the optimal sowing time, the temperature of the soil is 6-7oC (edible) and

7-8oC (oil) in the depth of the sowing. When spring comes as usual, this date is between 1 and 15 April (edible)

and 10-20 April (oil). It is reasonable to finish the sowing of sunflower before that of maize, in favour of good

work organization.


The selection of the optimal plant number is also important in sunflower production. Its most important

determining factors are summarized as follows:

• agro-ecological factors

• weather conditions (water supply of the previous year, the initial water supply in spring, the susceptibility

of the growing area to drought, etc.)

• pedological factors (the physical, chemical features, the water and nutrient managements of the soil, etc.)

• biological factors

• the biological features of the hybrid (plant density, pathological resistance, stem strength, etc.)

• the biological features of the seed (germinability, early vigour, dressing, etc.)

• agrotechnical factors

• directly effecting agrotechnical elements (tillage, sowing depth, plant protection)

• indirectly effecting agrotechnical elements (crop rotation, nutrient supply)

Week 11. INTEGRATED

SUNFLOWER PRODUCTION II.


During the initial development of sunflower, we can expect relatively considerable germ and young seedling

death. We have to differentiate the sown germ number from the productive plant number. The edible and oil

sunflower genotypes also need different plant numbers – due to their different – due to their different natures

and density. The productive plant number at harvest can differ between the following values, considering the

modifying factors:

• edible sunflowers 38-47 thousand/ha

• oil sunflowers 45-55 thousand/ha

(in case of intensive technology: 55-60 thousand/ha)

The germ numbers – depending on the conditions – to be sown are recommended to be 5-15% higher than the

above numbers.

The optimal sowing depth of edible sunflower varieties is 5-8 cm, while 4-6 cm in the case of the oil hybrids,

depending on the soil and seedbed quality.

The sowing of sunflower is carried out by seed-by-seed sowing machines, after certain adjustments. These

sowing machines can be used for the application of soil disinfectants and starter fertilizers too.

Our results confirmed that the sowing date and stock density of sunflower influenced either the amount or the

oil content of the achene.


2. Plant protection

One of the most crucial agrotechnical elements of the production technology of sunflower is plant protection.

Sunflower is threatened by several plant pathogens and animal pests along the whole vegetation period. The

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weed competitiveness of sunflower is slight in the first third of the vegetation period; at this time, weed freeness

has to be provided by adequate herbicide use.

In the protection of sunflower, the integrated approach has to be applied. This means

• the professional selection of the growing area

• the knowledge of the features of the genotype

• the manifestation of the positive effects of agrotechnical elements (crop rotation, soil cultivation, sowing,

nutrient supply)

In addition to these tools, pesticide use is also needed during integrated plant protection.

The diseases of sunflower and the protection against them

Sunflower is threatened by several diseases during its vegetation period. These, mainly fungal diseases can

significantly decrease yield amount and oil content. Although, numerous fungicides are available for dressing

and stock protection, stock protection cannot be considered as solved in every aspect. The most important

diseases of sunflower are the following:

• peronospora

• Botrytis head rot

• Sclerotinia basal stalk rot and wilt

• brown stem canker (Diaporthe )

• charcoal rot (Macrophominia )

• leaf and stem spot (Alternaria )

• Phoma black stem

• Septoria leaf spot

• sunflower rust

• sunflower powdery mildew

Among these diseases, Diaporthe and Sclerotinia diseases cause the most severe yield losses and oil content

decline. Recently, the significances of peronospora, Phoma and Alternaria also increase.


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The prerequisite of the protection against diseases is to comply with the principles of crop rotation (min. five

years have to elapse until it gets back on the field after itself) strictly. The gradually increased tolerance by

breeding can also be efficient. Dressing can provide enough protection against peronospora and other diseases.

The majority of the fungal diseases emerge in the vegetation period; against them, stock protection has to be

applied, reasonably at the following stages:

• developmental stage of 8-10-pair leaves

The protection of the stock is “obligatory” this time. The protection is for prevention then (end of May-

beginning of June). In the case of weather predisposing to diseases (dry, warm), contact, while in the opposite

case, systemic fungicides have to be used.

• beginning of flowering

Depending on the developmental state of the stock, the weather conditions, the disease tolerance of the

cultivated hybrid and the extent of infection, the implementation of this type of protection is recommended by

systemic fungicides. In addition to the aerial equipments (helicopter, aeroplane), the spraying machine fitted on

the gantry tractor can be applied with increasing efficiency during this period (beginning and middle of July).

In the case of intensive technology, a third kind of protection could be necessary in the period of achene-filling

(end of July-beginning of August).

The animal pests of sunflower and the protection against them

Sunflower is threatened by different animal pests from sowing to harvest. Birds and mammals (rabbit, hamster,

roe, etc.) can cause severe damages either at emergence or before the harvest. We can reduce the damages by

providing the conditions of rapid emergence and initial development and also by desiccation and harvesting in

time.

The largest damages in the sunflower stocks are caused by insects. The most important ones are:

• animal pests living in the soil (wireworms, false wireworms, grubs, etc.)

• weevils

• aphids

• capsid bugs

• cotton bollworm

We can partially protect against insect pests with dressing of the seed, but the major protection is the application

of insecticides in the stocks. In the latter, we have to pay attention to the fact that during the possible time of the

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protection (flowering), useful pollinating insects and bees are present in the sunflower stocks, thus chemicals

and technologies, which do not harm the bees, have to be applied.

Weed control

In the first third of its vegetation period (April-May), sunflower possesses slight weed suppressing ability.

During this period, the use of herbicides containing different active substances is needed. Later, sunflower will

possess excellent weed competitiveness until harvest.

For reasonable herbicide use, one has to know the weed coverage and weed composition. According to the

developmental cycle of sunflower, out of the annual weeds, the T4plants (T3 species to a lesser extent) are the

most important ones, but also perennial weeds (G1 and G3) can occur in the stocks. In the weed control of

sunflower, the biggest problems are caused by the weeds of the same family or the ones belonging to a family

botanically close to Asteraceae, or whose germination in spring is long-continued, constant. The most important

weeds of sunflower are the following:

• Annual weeds

• dicotyledons – ragweed, jimsonweed, velvetleaf, spiny cocklebur, pigweed, goosefoot, knotgrass, wild

rape, wild radish

• monocotyledons – barnyardgrass, Setaria

• Perennial weeds

• G1 weeds – Johnsongrass, cane

• G3 weeds – bindweed

Recently, the specific parasite of sunflower, the broomrape began to spread again. The cultivation of hybrids can

represent a successful protection against it.

In the weed control of sunflower, the traditional herbicides clearing mono- and dicotyledonous plants were not

efficient against many weeds. Another problem was due to the fact that sunflower is pronouncedly sensitive to

heavier herbicides, which can cause phytotoxicity. In favour of solving these problems, such hybrids were

produced which can be treated by post-emergent herbicides. In the case of these special hybrids, partially the

Clearfield and partially the Express technology can be applied successfully. The weed control of sunflower can

be summarized as follows:

• pre-sowing (monocotyledonous weeds) + pre-emergent (dicotyledonous weeds) treatments

• pre-emergent combined treatments (against mono- and dicotyledonous weeds)

• pre-emergent (dicotyledonous weeds) + post-emergent (monocotyledonous weeds) treatments

• in the case of special hybrid

• Clearfield technology

pre-emergent (monocotyledonous) + Clearfield (dicotyledonous weeds)

• Express technology

pre-emergent (monocotyledonous) + Express (dicotyledonous weeds)

The sunflower hybrids used in Clearfield and Express technologies are traditionally bred species (non-GM

plants). The two technologies cannot be exchanged in the case of hybrids, and can only be applied in special

hybrids.

Plant care

Week 11. INTEGRATED



The row distance of sunflower characteristic of root plants (70-76 cm) make inter-row cultivation possible in the

first third of the vegetation period (May-beginning of June). With inter-row cultivation, we can provide

favourable soil state for the development of plants.

3. Harvesting

The emergence and water release processes of sunflower are very special. The water release of the achene is

very rapid in August, before ripening, but that of the head of spongiform stalk tissue and the stalk are moderate;

even its re-watering can occur in the case of moist weather. To solve this problem, desiccation is applied. As an

effect of stalk drying, the water contents of the different plant parts considerably decrease, the differences are

equalized; it is also favourable in terms of the desiccation of weeds in the infected stocks. The selection of the

optimal time of desiccation is of great importance, since either the too early or the too late drying is

disadvantageous. In the case of warm weather in August-September, the ripening of the stocks is balanced, thus

desiccation can be skipped. The optimal time of stock drying is at the 28-32% wet content of the achenes, which

takes places 7-8 weeks after flowering (15-30 August). Different chemicals can be applied for stock drying

(products of rapid, average or slow effect). In addition to the reduction of the quantitative and qualitative losses,

the great advantage of stock drying is that the date of harvest can be precisely planned, the performance of the

harvester machines grow, the harvested crop is more pure and needs less drying.



Week 11. INTEGRATED



The harvesting of sunflower is carried out by adjusted combine harvesters equipped with special sunflower

adaptor, at the end of August and September, depending on the cropyear, the vegetation period of the hybrids

and the applied agrotechnique. The harvested crop has to be dried (max. 70oC) first, then cleared. The crop of

8% moist content is adequate for long-term storage.

4. Questions related to integrated sunflower production

1. What factors can determine the sowing time and plant density in sunflower production?

2. What are the most important diseases in sunflower? How can we protect against to them?

3. What are the most important pest in sunflower production? How can we protect to them?

4. What weeds do you know in sunflower production?

5. What is the optimum herbicide using in integrated sunflower production?

6. Why can we use defoliation before the harvest of sunflower?

7. What is the optimum harvest technology in integrated sunflower production?


11. fejezet - Week 12. INTEGRATED RAPE PRODUCTION I.

Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L. ssp. oleifera)

1. The importance of oilseed rape production

Oilseed rape is the third among the most important cultivated oil plants. Its production is carried out practically

on every continent, on more than 30 million ha worldwide.

Oilseed rape production began in the historical ages. It was already a cultivated crop in its gene centre 3000-

4000 years B.C.; later it spread from the coast of the Mediterranean. Out of its two life form varieties, the spring

one is the more important. Spring oilseed rape is produced on the two third of rape sowing areas, where the

rough winter weather or the certain droughty stages of its vegetation period make the production of the spring

variety of shorter vegetation time possible. In the largest oilseed rape producer countries (China, Canada, India),

mainly the cultivation of the spring variety is carried out, with moderate (~1-2 t/ha) yield averages. The

production of the winter variety is characteristic to Europe. In these countries, the yield averages are

considerably higher (~2-4 t/ha). The oil content of the winter variety (42-48%) is higher than that of the spring

one (40-42%).


The greatest value of oilseed rape is its oil, which is a semi-drying oil (iodine number is 95-106). Previously, its

oil composition (erucic acid) hindered its utilization in human nutrition. As a result of breeding, nowadays we

have varieties/hybrids free of erucic acid. The glucosinolate content of the oil cake generated during oil

production was also reduced by breeding (previously 150 µmol/g, now below 10 µmol/g) as its tannin content

too. Its main product, the oil is utilized in many ways. In addition to human nutrition, the different traditional

(dye, lake, varnish, soap, cosmetics) and new industry branches (plastic, textile, synthetic rubber, heavy

industry) use it. In the developing countries, it is used for lighting. The oil cake and groats generated during oil

production can be utilized in animal nutrition. It is important to use oils and by-products of adequate chemical

composition either in human or animal nutrition. Previously, one of the components of the different green

fodder blends (e.g. Keszthely blend) was oilseed rape. The importance of green fodders decreased in our

country. Oilseed rape is an excellent green manure plant, since its powerful rootage drains the soil and improves

its physical structure, and leaves a significant amount of organic material behind. In the Western European

countries of favourable precipitation supply, it is widely used as green manure plant. In Hungary, this kind of

use is of minimal extent. Oilseed rape is an excellent melliferous plant, honeybees help in its pollination. Its

honey is of special taste and colour. Its utilization for biodiesel production began two decades ago and is

Week 12. INTEGRATED RAPE

PRODUCTION I.


increasing. The biodiesel production and consumption of the Western European countries are of special

significance.

In Hungary, its production began at the middle of the 1700s on the Southern regions (Bánát, Bácska). The

increase of its sowing area was considerable afterwards (by the end of the 1800s, it was 180 thousand ha). At

that time, it was also an important crop in the development of the intensive farming. Between 1900 and 1970,

the sowing area of oilseed rape decreased to a minimum (some thousand ha) in our country. Between 1970 and

1990, it varied between 30 and 70 thousand ha, depending on the extent of freezing. Due to the increase of

market demands, a significant increase in the size of its sowing area took place in the 2000s (~200-250 thousand

ha). The considerable fluctuations of the sowing area sizes (e.g. in 2012: ~160 thousand ha) shows that the

ecological sensitivity of winter oilseed rape is pronouncedly high (autumn drought – defective, weak

emergence; winter frost – death). Between the 1970s and 1990s, the country oilseed rape yield averages were

around 1.5 t/ha. Oilseed rape pronouncedly needs intensive agrotechnique. As a result of the development of the

production technology, the yield average increased in the previous years (~2.5 t/ha). The domestic yield

averages are behind those of the best Western European countries (~3-4 t/ha), and they are also behind the

potential productivity (8-10 t/ha).

During the previous period (up to the 1990s), oilseed rape was mainly produced on Transdanubia. Due to the

considerable increase, the size of the sowing areas located West East of the Danube are currently equal. The

conditions of oilseed rape production are more favourable on Transdanubia (higher yield averages). In the

Eastern counties, the risk of the production is considerably higher.


2. Botanical and physiological characteristics

Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L. ssp. oleifera) belongs to the family of cruciferous plants (Cruciferae). Its two

life form varieties are:

• winter variety (forma biennis)

• spring variety (forma annua)

Although, the production area of spring oilseed rape in the world is significantly larger (~2/3), in Hungary, the

production of the winter variety takes place almost solely. This is due its higher productivity (by ~25-40%), and

higher oil content (42-48%) than those of the spring variety (40-42%).

The ancestor of the cultivated oilseed rape is not known. The different rape varieties crossed with each other

spontaneously. Several species (B. nigra, B. carinata, B. oleracea, B. juncea, B. campestris) could contribute to

the development of the cultivated rape in the genetic centre (Mediterraneum). It spread from its genetic centre

towards East (Asia) and West (Europe) in the historical times.


PRODUCTION I.


The axis of the main root system of rape is the tap root, which penetrates into the soil to the depth of 200 cm

under favourable conditions. The majority of the mass of its rootage (~70%) is located within the cultivated soil

layer. With its powerful rootage, rape drains the soil, improves its structure.

Its shoot system is a furcating, weedy stem covered with wax, its colour is usually light green (different colours

also occur). Its height is 110-180 cm, depending on the genotype, the ecological and agrotechnical conditions.

Recently, semi-dwarf varieties/hybrids were also bred, possessing better stem strength. The side shoots make a

15-25o angle with the main stem. The extent of furcations can differ depending on the genotype, weather and

soil conditions and the agrotechnique (nutrient supply, germ number, etc.). We aim to increase the extent of

furcations, since oilseed rape develops the majority of its crop in the secondary (~75%) and tertiary furcations

(~10%), not on the main stem (~15%).

Its cotyledons are of reverse kidney shape. Its autumn foliage leaves (basal leaves) are dark green coloured and

strongly lobular. The leaves are covered with wax. The rosette leaves (basal leaves) are slightly hairy, the

medium and upper stem leaves are naked, lengthy, lanceolated and of smooth edge.

In the corymbiform raceme inflorescence of oilseed rape we can find yellow or chrome-yellow cruciferous

flowers. There are four nectar glands in the flowers (good melliferous plant). The process of flowering takes

place bottom-up, first on the main stem, then on the side shoots. The flowering of rape is long-continued (even

20-35 days), can take place from the second half of April to the middle of May. Due to the long flowering, the

protection against animal pests is of great importance in this period. The long flowering involves long

emergence too, increasing harvesting losses.

The fruit of rape is pod, ending in a straight or slightly leaned beak, it dehisces easily. As a result of breeding,

the susceptibility of the newer genotypes to shattering is lower, but the delayed harvest can cause significant

losses even in their cases. The pods are 3-7 cm in length; they are light brown during ripening. The seeds are

located in the pod, on the medium septum, on both sides. There are 15-20 seeds in a pod. The thousand kernel

weight varies between 3 and 9 grams. The thousand kernel weights of hybrids are usually larger than those of

the varieties. The seeds are usually dark brown-black in colour, but different colours of them (e.g. dark grey,

drab) also can be found.

The ontogenesis of the winter oilseed rape begins with germination-emergence. This is a critical phenophase

since during this period (September), weather is frequently dry in our country. Thus, the germinating seeds often

die. In the case of severe drought, germination does not begin, the stocks emerged after the later rains cannot

reach adequate developmental level, their overwintering will be uncertain. The rosette leaves appear after the

cotyledonous stage and fit to the ground. In regard of overwintering it is very important to reach the 8-11-leaf

rosette stage, since overwintering is the most favourable in this developmental stage. On the other hand, it is

also unfavourable if rape reaches winter overdeveloped (began to shoot already), since it results in its freezing.

The autumn development of oilseed rape can be influenced by regulators. The overwintered oilseed rape stocks

often show very unfavourable pictures (desiccated leaves, etc.). Oilseed rape – in the case of adequate

overwintering – begins the reformation of rosette leaves even in the case of slight warming in spring. The spring

regeneration of oilseed rape can be promoted by the application of N fertilizers. Rape begins stem elongation in

the second half of March. This intensive dry matter generation demands significant amounts of nutrients and

water. Under average weather conditions, the flowering of rape begins in the second half of April and ends in

the middle of May. In this long period, the protections against animal pests and partially against plant pathogens

are of special importance. The ripening of oilseed rape begins at the beginning of June and – due to the long-

continued flowering – can last long. The yield loss due to the long-continued ripening can be reduced by the

selection of the appropriate genotype (less dehiscing pods), by the application of pod glues (lesser shattering

loss) and desiccation (improving the steadiness of ripening). Rape harvest can take place from the second half of

June to the beginning of July, depending on the weather conditions.

3. Biological bases

In Hungary, the winter variety is produced almost solely (higher yield, higher oil content). The extraordinary

production of the spring variety can take place if the winter variety freezes or special utilization aims make its

production reasonable.

The most important aspects of rape breeding and the selection of the genotype are the following:

• Productivity


PRODUCTION I.


The potential productivity of oilseed rape is 8-10 t/ha. Under favourable weather conditions and the

application of optimal agrotechnique, 6-8 t/ha yield can be obtained in practice, on field level. The yield

averages of the Western European countries varies between 3 and 4 t/ha, while that of Hungary is around 2.5

t/ha. There are also farms in our country which can reach the yield averages of 4-7 t/ha. In our long-term

experiments, oilseed rape performed 4.5-5.5 t/ha yields in the case of the best agrotechnical treatments. These

data show that the further increase of yields is not hindered by the productivity.

• Yield stability

• Ecological adaptability

The adaptation to the various climatic conditions is of special importance (drought, warmth, winter bearing,

relative moist content of the air during flowering [opt. around 80%], etc.). The adaptability to different

types of soils is also an important aspect.

• Disease resistance

• Pest resistance

• Stem strength (semi-dwarf genotypes)

• Steady flowering and ripening

• Lesser shattering ability

• Genotypes of different vegetation period

• Crop quality

• Increase of oil content (breeding of genotypes with oil contents close to 50%)

• Erucic acid freeness (the erucic acid contents of the genotypes have to be under 0.1%)

• Low glucosinolate content (above 10 µmol/g)

• Low tannin content (in favour of the utilization of by-products in animal husbandry)

• The production of genotypes of various oil content (for special utilization aims)

As a result of breeding, varieties of lower erucic acid content were produced in the 1970s. The oils of the

varieties of higher erucic acid content (above 45%) were only applicable for industrial use. Erucic acid causes

human health problems (diseases of the thyroid gland, cardiovascular diseases, carcinogenic effect). By the

decrease of erucic acid then the glucosinolate content, new genotypes were produced, which can be classified

into the following groups:

11.1. táblázat - Table 24.

Erucic acid % Glucosinolate

µmol/g Tannin

Group I

genotypes of high erucic acid content

above 45 above 150 high

Group 0

genotypes of reduced erucic acid content

below 3 below 100 high

Group 00

erucic acid-free genotypes

below 1 below 30 high


PRODUCTION I.


Group 000

erucic acid-free genotypes of low glucosinolate content

below 0.1 below 20 medium

Group 0000

erucic acid-free genotypes of low glucosinolate and

tannin contents

below 0.1 below 10 low

Previously, the production of varieties was typical. The composite hybrids appeared at the end of the 1990s and

have been produced for a short time. The real hybrids (Ogura and MSL types of hybrids) appeared at the

beginning of the 2000s. At the beginning, the size of sowing areas moderately increased. After the new types of

hybrids were involved in production, their sowing areas rapidly grew and currently they occupy ~75% of the

domestic oilseed rape sowing area. The facultative autogamy of rape makes the production of the hybrids

possible. The advantages of oilseed rape hybrids against varieties are the following:

• higher productivity (5-15% yield average)

• identical or better oil content

• better adaptability (gigantic rootage, better furcating ability)

The number of state certified oilseed rape varieties is high, making the selection of the better genotype fitting

the given ecological and agrotechnical conditions.

4. Ecological conditions

In the following, we only deal with the environmental demands of the winter oilseed rape.

Oilseed rape can be cultivated on different areas of the temperate climate zone, but the humid, oceanic climate is

the most favourable for it. Among other factors, this also contributes to the fact that the highest yields are

produced in the Western European countries. Our country‟s climate is rather continental, which fits oilseed rape

production to a lesser extent. Its production bears several risks. Although, the area of Hungary is not large, the

climatic-weather conditions differ in different parts of the country. On Transdanubia, the weather conditions are

more favourable due to the more precipitation, its better distribution, the milder winter, and the more moderately

warm spring and early summer. The weather of the Great Plain and of the areas East to the Danube are more

extreme, which does not favour autumn emergence, the vegetative development in spring, fertilization and the

development of the silicula seeds.

Rape is a plant characteristic to slightly warm areas of mild winter and steady climate. The long vegetation

period (260-280 days) and the relatively low assimilation threshold (+2oC) of oilseed rape result in high useful

heat sum (1700-2500oC) during the vegetation period. The optimal heat demand of oilseed rape is different in

the different stages of the vegetation period. The gradual cooling in autumn favours its development. In this

case, it can reach the 8-10-leaf rosette stage for overwintering. Its diameter at the collar is 10-15 mm. The

overwintering of lesser and more developed stocks can be uncertain. In the case of favourable autumn weather,

the overdevelopment of the stocks can be hindered by the application of regulators. The hardening of the stocks

and the preparation for winter during the period between the middle of November and middle of December is

important.

One of the most critical periods of oilseed rape production is winter. Even the winter bearing ability of the

optimally developed rape is limited. Without snow-blanket, the current genotypes can bear -15-16oC, while -

20oC covered with snow. In the case of overwatered soil, the winter bearing ability of oilseed rape decreases.

Occasionally, the frosts at the end of winter-during spring can cause damages, resulting in the freezing of the

stocks. We can protect against it with rolling. During certain cropyears, the late spring frosts (April-beginning of

May) can cause growing deformities and the freezing of a part of the flowers.

In spring, in March, the development of the stocks begins as an effect of slight warming, due to the low

assimilation threshold (+2oC). During vegetative development (+15-17oC), flowering (+18-20oC) and ripening

(+20-21oC), the mild warmth is favourable for the development and pod production of rape. Due to the spring


PRODUCTION I.


and summery warm, droughty weather, lesser furcation, weaker flower development and fertilization takes place

and pod-filling also declines.

Oilseed rape is a plant of high water demand. Its water demand during the vegetation period is 400-500 mm (the

precipitation demand is higher, 500-700 mm). Its transpiration coefficient is high, 600 L/kg dry material. The

critical periods of its water demand:

• germination – emergence – initial development

• the period of intensive stem growth and furcation in spring

• the period of silicula-filling after flowering

During flowering, it is sensitive to the relative humidity of the air. The optimal value is around 80%. If this

value decreases to around 60%, then only the 20-30% of the buds gets fertilized.

Rape is moderately light demanding (1200-1500 sunny hours) and of long-light demand.

Rape can adapt to the different soil features better than to the various climatic conditions. Due to its large

vegetative and generative mass, its significant water and nutrient demand, it can produce high yields on good

soils. It is especially demanding for the agronomical (culture-) state of the soil. Oilseed rape is produced on

various types of soils in our country, the following:

• brown forest soils

• grassland and silty soils

• chernozem soils

• sodic soils of better quality

• alluvial and skeletal soils of better quality

• humous, sandy soils of better quality

5. Agrotechnical elements

During the production of oilseed rape, one has to endeavour the optimal implementation of every agrotechnique.

But – as in the case of every field plant – there are also agrotechnical elements playing crucial role in terms of

the efficiency of the agrotechnique. In rape production the roles of

• soil cultivation

• nutrient supply

• plant protection

are of special importance. However, we have to emphasize that several interactions take place among the

different agrotechnical elements, which denotes the importance of the other agrotechnical elements.

Crop rotation

The winter oilseed rape is not too demanding in terms of the preceding crop. During the selection of the

preceding crop, two basic aspects have to be taken into consideration:

• The preceding crop has to be harvested in time to have enough time for carrying out the soil works and other

agrotechnical operations.

• In regards of plant protection, avoid preceding crops with common diseases, pests and preceding crops

leaving too much weeds behind. Thus, sunflower and soybean (common diseases) are unfavourable, and

oilseed rape can be sown after itself after min. four years.

The preceding crops can be classified into the following groups:


PRODUCTION I.


• Excellent preceding crops

Pea, Crimson clover and the autumn and spring forage mixes belong to this group. These plants are cultivated

on very small areas, thus they are rarely used as preceding crops.

• Good preceding crops

Spiked cereals belong to this group. Based on the removal time, we distinguish:

• better ones – winter barley, early winter wheat (harvested 1-3 weeks earlier)

• a bit weaker ones – later harvested winter wheat, spring barley, triticale, rye, oat.

Due to their large areas, spiked cereals can be easily chosen as preceding crops of oilseed rape, thus, mainly

these plants are used.

• Average preceding crops

This group consists of preceding crops of later removal time and the ones leaving larger stem and root mass

behind, e.g. silage maize, silage sorghum, alfalfa, red clover.

• Poor preceding crops

Plants of late (after the end of July-middle of August) removal times belong to this group: lately emerging

perennial legumes, hybrid corn. By the application of modern tillage tools and adequate nutrient and water

supplies (fertilization, irrigation), the negative effects of the unfavourable preceding crops can be reduced.

Usually winter wheat or other spiked cereals are sown after rape, since it is a valuable preceding crop. In spite of

the fact that rape does not bind N, its value as preceding crop is identical with that of the best peas. This is due

to its excellent drainage and soil structure improving ability and its positive effects on the agronomical (culture-)

state of the soil. Also other plants can come after rape (e.g. corn), which thanks its favourable effects with

significant yield excess.

Soil cultivation

Soil cultivation is an agrotechnical element that basically determines oilseed rape yields. The problem of tillage

is that deeply loosened, especially smoothly graded seedbed has to be made in the months of July-August-

September under unfavourable soil and weather conditions. This needs great carefulness and the professional

selection of the tillage tools and dates of operations.

Rape needs deeply cultivated soil (it has deeply penetrating, wide rootage) and thanks it. In case of adequate soil

state, periodic deep cultivation can be carried out under oilseed rape too (~35 cm cultivation depth). However,

in the majority of the cases, the weather and soil conditions allow average depth (20-30 cm). In terms of the

later quality of soil cultivation, the most important things are the removal of the preceding crop, the immediate

stubble cultivation and closing after it. Previously, an important aspect was that basic tillage has to be carried

out minimum four weeks before sowing and then the use of only shallow cultivating tools. By the application of

the new tillage tools, this period can be shortened to 1-2 weeks. The seedbed definitely has to be small-crumbed,

settled, smooth and moist.

The soil preparations of rape are classified into four operation groups:

• preparations

• basic tillage

• grading of basic tillage

• seedbed preparation

Based on the character of the basic tillage, the following two soil preparation systems can be used in rape

production:

• Traditional (with ploughing) soil cultivation system


PRODUCTION I.


Possible soil operations

stubble cleaning + closing

↓

stubble care + closing (can be repeated if necessary)

↓

basic tillage (ploughing: 22-28 cm, depending on the soil features)

↓

grading of basic tillage (in one stage with ploughing, if possible)

↓

seedbed preparation (by many operations, if possible)

• Energy saving (without ploughing) soil cultivation system

Applied operations

stubble cleaning + closing

↓

stubble care + closing (can be repeated if necessary)

↓

basic tillage (heavy cultivator, mid-deep loosener, mulchtiller, etc., cultivation depth: 20-26 cm)

↓

grading of basic tillage (by disc or combined tool)

↓

seedbed preparation (by many operations, if possible)

If possible, we have to aim to implement the energy saving soil cultivation, if the soil state and other conditions

make it feasible.

6. Nutrient supply

Oilseed rape needs significant amount of nutrients for the generation of its huge vegetative and generative mass.

A part of the nutrients are absorbed from the soil, but significant amounts have to be supplemented by

fertilizers. Rape absorbs macro- (N, P, K), meso- (Ca, Mg and S is especially important) and microelements

(primarily B and Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, etc.). The physiological importance of the individual elements is different.

Nitrogen is essential for the formation of the vegetative organs. Without the sufficient amount of vegetative

mass, the yield will not be adequate. The nitrogen uptake is considerable (~250 kg/ha). The uptake dynamics of

nitrogen differ along the vegetation period. Oilseed rape needs small amounts of nitrogen in autumn. The

amount of absorbed nitrogen increases from the beginning of stem growth (end of March-beginning of April)

and lasts until pod development (beginning of June). The symptoms of nitrogen deficit are clearly visible on

rape (light green stock, less furcation, low plant height). The excessive nitrogen supply is also disadvantageous:

causes overdevelopment in autumn, reduced winter bearing, increases the susceptibility to diseases and lodging

risk in spring). Rape needs nitrogen along the vegetation period, thus its divided application is necessary. The

excessive nitrogen supply decreases the oil content of the seed.


PRODUCTION I.


Phosphorus significantly increases the root development of rape, the extent of furcations, promotes flowering,

fertilization, pod development and oil enrichment. The phosphorus uptake of rape is long-continued, remains

constant during the vegetation period. The amount of absorbed phosphorus is ~100-150 kg/ha.



Out of the macroelements, potassium is the most needed one for rape (the amount of absorbed potassium is

~300-400 kg/ha). The adequate potassium supply promotes the generation of carbohydrates, thus the winter

bearing of rape improves. It favours the water supply of the plant, increases disease resistance and stem strength.

The most intensive potassium uptake takes place during the intensive stem growth. At the end of the vegetation

period, potassium release takes place (due to the loss of the vegetative parts, leaves).



PRODUCTION I.


Sulphur is a mesoelement of special importance, due to the considerable amount of sulphur containing amino

acids (cystine, cysteine, methionine, etc.), used for the building of proteins. Similarly to that of nitrogen, the

absorbed amount of sulphur is considerable (~250 kg/ha).


Among the mesoelements, the adequate supplement of calcium and magnesium is important. These

mesoelements are not only nutrients but play role in the formation of the neutral pH of soil. Oilseed rape

develops sufficiently on soils of neutral or slightly acidic pH.

Among the microelements, boron is especially important. Its roles are considerable in carbohydrate generation,

flower development and the fertilization processes.



PRODUCTION I.


For the reasonable nutrient supply of rape, one has to know its specific nutrient demand (with reference to 100

kg main and by-products):

N 5,5 kg

P2O5 3,5 kg

K2O 4,3 kg

CaO 3,0 kg

MgO 1,0 kg

Based on the planned yield, the nutrient supply of soil, the nutrient reaction of the variety/hybrid and the

agrotechnical factors, the application of the following nutrient amount is recommended in oilseed rape:

N 140-170(200) kg/ha

P2O5 80-120 kg/ha

K2O 100-150 kg/ha

Before the wide spreading of chemical fertilization, livestock manure was applied under rape, since its high

nutrient demand was known (similarly, livestock manure was put under sugar beet too in the past). Out of the

livestock manures, the deep litter sheep manure was applied as the most concentrated one, containing the less

litter material.

Currently, the nutrient demand of rape is mainly satisfied by chemical fertilizers. The application and

distribution of chemical fertilizers are as follows:

• The phosphorus and potassium fertilizers are applied and worked into the soil before the deepest soil works.

Their washing out from the soil is minimal and conversion processes have to take place in favour of the

availability. The phosphorus uptake of rape is considerable even in autumn, while the potassium uptake

increases from early spring.

• The nitrogen fertilizers have to be applied dividedly, considering the nutrient uptake dynamics of oilseed

rape. Oilseed rape needs small amounts of nitrogen in autumn. In autumn, we apply the 0-30% of the whole

amount (max. 30-40 kg/ha N active substance). It is reasonable to apply the remaining nitrogen in two parts in

spring (the spring amount is considered as 100%).

• at the end of winter (middle of February-beginning of March), the 55-65% is applied (regeneration,

initiation of vegetative development)


PRODUCTION I.


• at the stage of stem growth-green bud (end of March-beginning of April), 35-45% is applied (the

promotion of furcation and the flowering biological processes)

During the determination of the spring dose, the development of the stocks has to be taken into consideration. In

the case of intensive production, the sulphur and boron fertilization of rape is essential, which can be carried out

simultaneously with the plant protection operations.

7. Questions related to integrated rape production

1. How can we use the oil of rape?

2. What is the importance of rape production in the World and in Hungary?

3. What is role of varieties and hybrids in integrated rape production?

4. What are the most important ecological (climatic and soil) factors in rape production?

5. How do you classify the forecrops of rape?

6. What elements have the traditional and new tillage technology in rape production?


12. fejezet - Week 13. INTEGRATED RAPE PRODUCTION II.

1. Sowing technology

The autumn and spring vegetative growth, the extent of furcations, the flower biological processes and the

homogeneity of stocks, i.e. the yield amount can be influenced by sowing.

The proper selection of the sowing date is of determining importance. Sowing carried out too early can result in

excessive vegetative growth in autumn, while the too late one, in weak development. The originally below-the-

average winter bearing ability of rape considerably declines in both cases. During the determination of the

optimal sowing date, the following aspects have to be taken into consideration:

• the genotype (variety-hybrid)

• the region (the areas located to the South and to the North of the Debrecen-Keszthely line)

• the preceding crop

• the soil features

• seedbed quality

• biological value of the seed.

The optimal sowing dates of

• varieties: 25 August – 15 September

• hybrids: 5-25 September

Generally, within the interval, earlier sowing is reasonable. The overdevelopment of stocks can be controlled by

regulators.

Due to the risks of overwintering, rape sowing is not recommended after 25-30 September.

The optimal stock density and the growing area significantly modified in the last decades. Currently, the aim is

to achieve the emergence of every seed and the overwintering of the majority of them, by optimal soil

cultivation, sowing (maybe irrigation). Further goal is the increase of the extent of furcations. The stock density

of oilseed rape is determined by the following factors:

• the genotype (variety-hybrid)

• the region

• the sowing date

• the soil features

• seedbed quality

• the possibility of irrigation

• the level of plant protection

• biological value of the seed.

In the past years, the sown germ number considerably decreased:

• In varieties: 0.5-0.7 million/ha (in the case of optimal agrotechnique: 0.35-0.45 million/ha)


PRODUCTION II.


• The amount of seed: 2.0-3.0 kg/ha (1.5-2.0 kg/ha, respectively).

• After overwintering, the optimal plant number: 40-60 plants/m2 (the minimal plant number: 20-25

plants/m2).

• In hybrids: 0.35-0.55 million/ha (in the case of optimal agrotechnique: 0.2-0.3 million/ha)

• The amount of seed: 1.5-2.0 kg/ha (1.2-1.5 kg/ha, respectively).

• After overwintering, the optimal plant number: 25-45 plants/m2 (the minimal plant number: 20 plants/m2).

Previously, oilseed rape was sown in the row distance characteristic to cereals (10-12-15 cm). In this case, the

adequate amount of furcations was not formed. Nowadays, sowing in double cereal row distance (24-30 cm) is

widely used, but also triple (36 cm) distance is applied. We are conducting promising experiments on sowing in

the row distance characteristic to root crops. In this case, mechanical inter-row cultivation is also can be carried

out (45 and 76 cm row distance).

A rape seed is small, thus its optimal sowing depth is shallow (2-3 cm).

It is especially important to carry out rolling before and after sowing (rape gets between the two cylinders).

2. Regulator use

The yield stability of oilseed rape is basically influenced by the adequate overwintering. Our aim is to have rape

in the developmental stage (8-10-leaf) optimal for overwintering at the beginning of winter. Its favourable

autumn development can be more rapid and the overdeveloped stocks can freeze. Therefore, recently, regulator

use became the part of the production technology of oilseed rape. The regulators are chemicals (actually

fungicides), which can change the hormonal balance. The goals of regulator use are:

• to provide adequate developmental state in autumn

• to induce more intensive root development

• to reduce the development of the plant parts above the ground

• to provide more favourable overwintering

• to decrease the emergence of diseases.

In the case of intensive technology and favourable autumn weather, two-time regulatory use can be necessary.

In autumn, the regulator is applied at the 4-8-leaf developmental stage.

In the case of intensive technology, we can apply regulators in spring too aiming the following:

• to reduce the development of the plant parts above the ground

• to achieve better stem strength

• more intensive root development

• to provide better nutrient and water uptake

• less stock infection

The time of the spring regulator use is the end of March-beginning of April.

Various chemicals are available for the autumn and spring regulator uses.

3. Plant protection

In the protection of oilseed rape, the tools of integrated plant protection (growing area selection, selection of

variety/hybrid, optimal agrotechnique, and chemical plant protection) have to be applied jointly. Our aim is to


PRODUCTION II.


increase the role of non-chemical protection, the reduction of pesticide use and to decrease environmental stress.

In this chapter, we deal with mainly the possibilities of chemical plant protection.

Animal pests and the protection against them

In the protection of oilseed rape, an especially important task is to protect against animal pests, primarily

insects. The majority of the animal pests of rape are obligatory ones, i.e. mainly occur on rape (and on some

cognate plant species). The stocks are threatened by animal pests form sowing to harvesting. A some-day delay

in chemical plant protection can cause very serious damages. Thus, the constant monitoring of the stocks and the

prognosis of pests are very important (yellow dish signalization).

Out of the pests of rape, the ones occurring in autumn can cause considerable problems only occasionally, in

certain cropyears, which makes chemical protection reasonable. If the conditions of the emergence and autumn

development are favourable, then the autumn pests (especially cabbage stem flea beetle) can cause only minimal

damages (“rape grows out of the teeth of the pest”). In autumn,

• cabbage stem flea beetle (Phylloides crysocephala ) and


• turnip sawfly (Athalia roseae )



PRODUCTION II.


can cause damages. The damages caused by the pseudo-caterpillar of the turnip sawfly in autumn, which can

chew down the foliage of oilseed rape in days.

The most important pests of oilseed rape emerge in spring. The multi-time protection against them is essential.

In the case of mild winter, the cabbage stem weevil (Ceutorynchusquadridens) moves into the stocks at the end

of winter-early spring; its larvae develop in the


stem of rape and can cause the lodging of the stocks before ripening. The most significant animal pest of oilseed

rape is the pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus), which invades the stocks at the end of March-beginning of April.

It chews the flower buds through, thus it eats pollen.



PRODUCTION II.


It can cause severe damages to the flowering rape by eating pollen and chewing flowers. We can protect against

it by bee-saving technology and recently by excellent bee-saving chemicals (can be used during daylight too).

The cabbage seedpod weevil (Ceutorynchus


assimilis) and the pod gall midge (Dasyneurabrassicae) can cause fewer damages by chewing the seeds in the

developing pod and the dehiscence of the pods.


In addition to the above animal pests, other insect pests can occur, but also birds and mammals can cause

damages during ripening.

Against insect pests, insecticides are applied at their damaging thresholds.

Diseases and the protection against them

Previously, diseases occurred only to a minimal extent in the rape stocks, no chemical protection was needed

against them. Recently, due to the more intensive production technology and the spreading of varieties/hybrids

of higher productivity, more and more diseases can be found in the oilseed rape stocks; against them, fungicidal

stock protection has to be performed. The spreading of diseases with seeds can be reduced by dressing. The

diseases of rape emerge mainly in spring, invading the stem, the leaves, the inflorescence and the pod. The

spread of the diseases are favoured by the cool, wet spring-early summer weather. The most important diseases

of oilseed rape are the following:

• white mould (Sclerotiniasclerotiorum )

• peronospora (Peronosporaparasitica )


PRODUCTION II.


• collar rot (Phomalingam )

• Alternaria black spot (Alternariabrassicae)




12.10. ábra - Figure 96


PRODUCTION II.


The regulators (which are also fungicides) applied in autumn and spring can provide certain protection against

diseases. In spring, fungicidal protection is recommended during the intensive stem growth and at the beginning

of flowering.

Weed control

Oilseed rape is susceptible to weediness at the beginning of the vegetation period (at emergence and after

emergence up to leaf closing) and at the end of winter-early spring. In other periods of the vegetation period, its

weed suppressing ability is good. Recently, due to the decreasing stock density and the increasing row distance,

one has to pay more attention to the weed control of rape.

The life rhythms of its most important weeds are identical with rape development:

• scentless chamomile (Matricariainodora )

• cleavers (Galiumaperine )

• corn chamomile (Anthemisarvensis )

• Veronica species (Veronica sp.)

• common chickweed (Stellariamedia )

• flixweed (Sysimbriumsophia )

• volunteers of cereals.




PRODUCTION II.


We can protect against weeds in many ways:

• Pre-sowing weed control

Currently not applied, since the working of the herbicide into the soil unfavourably influences its state.

• Pre-emergent weed control

A method applied in the practice too. Its efficiency depends on the rinsing precipitation (15-25 mm).

• Post-emergent weed control in autumn

A widely used method, primarily against the dicotyledonous weeds and in certain cases, against volunteer

cereals.

• Post-emergent weed control in spring

It can be applied during early spring (second half of March-beginning of April) in the case of no autumn weed

clearing or if its efficiency was not enough.

In the weed control of oilseed rape, suitable herbicides are available either against dicotyledonous weeds or

volunteer cereals.

Recently, new herbicide technologies spread:

• Clearfield (imidazoline) – IMI technology

It can be applied post-emergently in the case of special IMI types of rape hybrids.

• Sulphonylcarbamide (ethametsulfuron) – SU technology

It can be applied post-emergently in the case of every variety/hybrid.

.In the rape stock sown in wide row distance (45-67 cm), mechanical weed clearing, inter-row cultivation can

also be applied.

4. Harvesting

Due to its long-continued flowering, the emergence of oilseed rape is also long. The seeds are already ripened in

the most developed pods, while on the upper parts of the inflorescences; the pods and the seeds within are green.

The ripening stages of rape are the following:

• green ripening – the death of leaves begins, the seeds are light green in colour

• the first stage of technical ripeness – the desiccation of leaves goes on, the pods are golden yellow, the seeds

pull apart by pressing (30-40% moisture content)


PRODUCTION II.


• some days later the application of glues can be carried out (approx. 30% moisture content)

• afterwards, the desiccation of the stocks can be carried out (~22-26% moisture content)

• The stocks can be considered as harvestable at the second stage of technical ripening. The water content of

the seed is 14-16%, the leaves are fully desiccated, the pods are brown, the seeds are dark brown-black in

colour, the seeds clatter while shaking the pods.


Rape harvesting takes place in the second half of June-beginning of July, depending on the weather and

agrotechnical conditions. The pods can dehisce easily, especially after little rains and desiccation after them. To

reduce shattering loss, different glues can be applied. The homogeneity of ripening is important, in favour of

which different stock desiccants (of rapid and slow effect) can be used. The harvest with combines can begin 5-

10 days after the application of the rapid desiccants, while in the case of the slow ones, after 10-20 days. Rape

can be harvested in one course, by adjusted cereal combine harvesters. The proper adjustment and operation

(speed, etc.) of the combine is very important. To reduce the harvest losses, side mows can be used, fixed to the

cutting section. Due to the small seeds, the adequate lining has to be ensured in favour of avoiding the losses.

The combine-pure crop contains several pod, stem and leaf parts, thus it has to be pre-cleaned and dried at 50-

60oC, followed by post-drying. Due to its high oil content, the seed of 8% moisture content can be stored for

long.

5. Questions related to integrated rape production

1. What factors can modify the optimum sowing time and plant density of rape?

2. Why have to use regulators in integrated rape production?

3. What are the important to use environmentally friendly the insecticides in rape production?

4. Why is important to use environmentally friendly the insecticides in rape production?

5. What are the important diseases in rape production? How can we protect against them?


PRODUCTION II.


6. What are the important weeds in rape production? What herbicides can we use in integrated rape production?

7. What is the optimum harvest technology in integrated rape production?


13. fejezet - Week 14. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER OILCROPS (OIL PALM, PEANUT)

1. Oilpalm

Origin of oilpalm

Oilpalm is originated from west and southern Africa, Guinea, Angola, Gambia. Humans use it as oil source from

3,000 years BC.

13.1. ábra - Figure 100.Oil crops production of the world (Faostat database, 2010)

13.1. táblázat - Table 25.The oilpalm and peanut production of the world (2010 Faostat

Database)

Area (ha) Production (tons)

Oilpalm 15 826 612 225 743 434

Peanut 25 303 480 41 893 537

2. Taxonomical classification of oilpalm

Family: Arecaceae (Palmae) Palm family

Genus: Elaeis Oilpalms (2 species)

Elaeis guineensis Jacq. African oilpalm (20 m high palm tree)

Week 14. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER

OILCROPS (OIL PALM, PEANUT)


Elaeis oleifera American oilpalm

13.2. ábra - Figure 101.Oilpalm (photo: Bongoman, Ghana)

3. Uses of oilpalm

Oilpalm gives two kinds of oil. Palm oil is extracted from the fleshy mesocarp of the fruit which contains 45-55

% yellowish oil. The melting point is between 27-50 °C. Palm oil contains high percent unsaturated oleic acid

and linoleic acid. It also content saturated palmitic acid. Iodine value is 52.

Palm kernel oil is extracted from the endosperm of palm kernel, which contains about 50 % oil. It contains high

percent of saturated acids, mainly lauric (45-50 %) acid. It is solid at room temperature. The melting point is

about 24-25 °C. Iodine value is 17.

Palm oil: cooking oil, margarine, cocoa butter substitute, milk fat replacer, biodiesel.

Palm kernel oil: soap, detergents, cosmetics, toiletries.

Feed: palm kernel residues may use as animal feed after oil extraction. It is a valuable, high protein feed.

4. Climatic conditions of oilpalm

Oilpalm needs warm, wet, tropical climate. The altitude may be up to 900 m, it develops best on lowlands.

Mean annual temperature is optimal between 27-35 °C. Oilpalm is grown in areas with 2000-3000 mm mean

annual rainfall.

5. Soil conditions of oilpalm

Oilpalm has a fibrous root system. It benefits from deep soils that are fertile, free from iron concretions and are

well drained.

Good soils:

soils with good water balance, but it can tolerate temporary flooding

alluvial soils, volcanic origin soils, sandy soils

Not suitable soils:

Week 14. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



water-logged soils, highly lateritic soils, extremely sandy soils, stony or peaty soils

6. Nutrient supply of oilpalm

Recommended fertilizer doses (kg/ha/year)

N: 80-90

P2O5: 115-200

K2O: 35-60

7. Sowing of oilpalm

Seeds naturally germinate slowly, thus pretreatment is necessary. The seeds are placed in strong (125 mm)

polythene bags. The bags are put into a germinator at 39-40 °C for 75-80 days. They are then soaked in cold

water for 3 days, changing water every 24 hours. The seeds are drained and dried under shade and kept at room

temperature. They are examined every 2 weeks for germination and drying. Drying seeds are sprayed with

water. Germinated seeds are picked for potting. This treatment gives an 80 % germination rate. 1 kg contains

about 230 seeds. Sometimes the hard shell is ground down, or seeds are soaked in hot water for 2 weeks before

sowing.

Oilpalm tree planting

Young palms are 12-18 months old when they are transplanted. They should be moved with a substantial ball of

earth.

Initial spacing is normally 9 m in a triangular arrangement. There are 140 trees in one hectare. The individual

trees are fenced with wire netting to protect them from attack of rodents and grass cutters what eat the heart of

young palms during the first few years. Mulching to conserve moisture in the dry season is necessary. The lower

senescent leaves should be removed and burnt.

8. Diseases of oilpalm

Bud rot fungal-bacterial complex:

Dry basal rot (Ceratocystis paradoxa): Symptom is the decay (dry rot) on the base of the stem. Only fresh

trunk wounds will become infected by the fungus, so control includes limiting man-made wounds to the palm

trunk, especially the upper third of the trunk.

Ganoderma trunk rot (Ganoderma lucidum): Basal trunk rot is a lethal disease for oilpalm trees and it maybe

is the most serious of all diseases affecting the oil palm. The disease is caused by the Ganoderma white rotting

fungus which attacks the bottom of the palm tree. The symptoms comprise a mottling or yellowing of fronds

followed by necrosis. It is assumed that at least one-half of the basal stem has been killed by the fungus when

foliar symptoms (Spear leaves eventually remain unopened) were observed.

Blast (Pythium splendens and Rhizoctonia lamellifera): The pathogen commonly causes decay of germinating

seedlings of oilpalm. Infected roots show dark-brown discolouration. Greyish to brown streaks or lesions appear

on the base of the stems. Chemical control is available.

Freckle (Cercospora elaeidis): Symptom is appearing small (rarely exceeds 0.5 mm) brown spots in the middle

on the leaves. The spots have a small water-soaked yellow halo. Severely infected leaves will dry down.

Crown disease (Marasmius palmivorus): The fungus cause bunch rot in oilpalm plantations. Whitish or

pinkish-white mycelial threads can be seen over the bunch surface. The fungus attacks the mesocarp of the fruit

and causes a soft, brown, wet rot. Complete eradication of the fungus is impossible, because its widespread

occurrence. Control is therefore largely preventive through sanitation measures.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): The fungus causes vascular disorder and wilting of the infected plants.

Symptoms include initial wilting followed by desiccation of the fronds, which finally break and hang around the

Week 14. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



trunk. Inside the stem the vascular bundles show orange-brown discolouration. Infected palm may remain alive

for month but is stunted and will die at the end.

Control:

• proper nutrient supply

• adequate water supply

• proper sanitation practice

• foliar fungicide treatment

9. Pests of oilpalm

Red ring nematodes (Bursaphelenchus (Rhadinaphelenchus) cocophilus): These nematodes cause the fatal

disease known as Red ring disease of oilpalm. It is vectored by the palm weevil, Rhynchophorus palmarum. The

control is controlling palm weevil by pheromone trapping or other ways.

Aphids (many species) (Aphis spp.): Colonies of aphids occur on the under surface of leaves and suck sap.

Infected young leaves will be distorted.

Oil palm leaf miner (Coelaenomenodera lameensis): This species is indigenous to the West Coast of Africa,

but it is spread throughout the oilpalm plantations. The larvae mine under the epidermis of leaflets, giving them

a blistered appearance and causing withering. Heavy infestations can cause 90 % defoliation which can

subsequently lead to 50 % reduction in fruit over the following 3 years. Leaf miner damage is difficult to predict

and control with pesticides is costly. Palms of all ages are attacked, except those under 3 or 4 years old.

Oil palm bunch moth (Thirathaba mundella): The caterpillars bore into unopened spathes and feed on the

tender floral parts. They can also attack tender fruits. It is one of the most important pests of the oilpalm

plantations in many areas. The yield loss can reach up to 50 %.

Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros): Adult beetles bore into the palms and chew its tender tissues. Infested

leaves shortened, broken and distorted. It can damage the heart of the palm causing rapid dying.

Mammals (rodents, elephants): The rats burrow down to the bole of the palms and make cavities into it,

feeding the sweet inner cabbage portion. The damage leads to wilting of the leaves and death of the palm.

Birds (parakeets, crows): Covering the fruit bunch with suitable low cost material is the simplest and effective

method.

Pest control:

• foliar pesticide use against insect pests


• using anticoagulants to control rodents

• elephants: plantations are surrounded by deep trenches, electric fences, or barbed wire.

10. Harvesting oilpalm fruits

First fruit bunches ripen in 3-4 years after planting. Fruits ripen 5-6 months after pollination. Bunches are cut

with a steel chisel, allowing the peduncles to be cut without injuring the subtending leaf. A man can harvest

100-150 bunches per day.

Oilpalm gives 6-12 t/ha fruit yield annually (for 80-120 years). That means 750 kg seed kernels/ha/year.

11. Peanut

Week 14. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Origin of peanut

Peanut had its origin in South America, Arachis is exclusively a genus of South America. The wild Arachis

species occur in Brazil followed by Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay. Peanut was being cultivated 1000 BC in

Peru. Now it is grown throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. The cultivated peanut is

a tetraploid with chromosome number, 2n= 40.

12. Uses of peanut

• Oil: cooking oil (high smoking point, resistant to rancidity), soap, massage oil, biodiesel, medicines,

lubricants, cosmetics

• Food: peanut butter, roasted peanuts, salted peanuts, candy, peanut flour

• Industry: shells are used making plastic, wallboard, cellulose, fuel

13. Taxonomical classification of peanut






Family: Fabaceae Pea family

Genus: Arachis Peanuts (50-60 species)

Arachis hypogea L. Peanut (groundnut, goober, pindar). It is an annual, herbaceous legume,

with indeterminate growing habit. It is 99 % self-pollinating plant.

13.3. ábra - Figure 102.Peanut pods

14. Nutrient content of the shelled peanut seed

Week 14. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Protein: 25-30 %


Fat: 42-51 %

Minerals: 2.2-2.8 %

15. Types of peanut

Runner: the growing period is 130-150 days, this type gives 75 % of USA peanut production. It is used

mainly in peanut butter production.

Virginia: it has large seeds. The growing season is 135-140 days, it gives 20 % of USA peanut production. It

is used as roasted and shelled, salted peanuts.

Spanish: it has small pods and seeds. It gives 4 % of USA peanut production, is used as salted nuts and

candy.

Valencia: it has long pods and gives 1 % of USA peanut production. It has a very sweet taste, thus it is used

as roasted peanuts.

16. Climatic conditions of peanut

Peanut prefers warm climate, it can be produced between latitudes N: 44°-S: 35°. It requires minimum 12 °C

soil temperature to germination, but the optimum is 28-32 °C.

Optimal temperature in growing season is 25-35 °C. Temperatures above 35 °C inhibit the growth of peanut.

It is also very sensitive to low temperatures. Little if any growth and development occurs at temperatures below

13 °C. The plant dies at -3 °C temperature.

HU: 2,600-3,000 °C. It requires 1200-1500 hours of sunshine.

Peanut has high water demand, it needs about 300 mm water evenly distributed in the growing season. Adequate

average precipitation in a year is between 500 – 1,000 mm. Transpiration coefficient: 800-1,000 l/kg dry matter.

17. Soil conditions of peanut

Peanut prefers slightly acidic soils (pH 5.9-7.0). It needs moderate or low amounts of organic matter in the soil

and good drainage. Light textured soils are beneficial because they allow easy penetration of roots and pegs.

Peanut has a very low salt tolerance.

Good soils:

light sandy loam soils

Not suitable soils:

heavy soils (high clay content), acidic soils (pH <5.9), sodic soils, meadow soils

18. Crop rotation of peanut

Good forecrops:

cotton, maize, small grain cereals

best yields are obtained following grass pastures

Bad forecrops:

Week 14. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



alfalfa, soybeans, lupins

peanut (Peanut should be grown once in every 4 years (important!) on same field.)

19. Soil preparation of peanut

Well-prepared seedbed is essential for peanut because the pegs penetrate into the soil after flowering. Fall

plowing is 20-22 cm deep. On highly erodible soils strip tillage or even, no-tillage is allowed. It is important

burying the residues of the previous crop, which reduces losses from stem- and peg-root diseases. The soil

preparation procedure is similar to soybean or corn.

20. Nutrient supply of peanut

Peanut is a legume and can fix aerial nitrogen with the help of Rhizobium bacteria. Nitrogen Adequate Ca

presence in the soil is needed to healthy development and pod formation.


N: 30-50

P2O5: 30-100

K2O: 50-100

CaO: lime or gypsum!

21. Sowing of peanut

Early sowing (in optimal sowing time interval) gives greater opportunity to pod development, and more pods

can mature before early frosts. Peanut requires 5-6 cm sowing depth, when it is sown to greater depths, slower

and poorer emergence results. Peanut usually germinates and emerges slower than other legumes. Higher than

15 °C soil temperatures result rapid and even germination. Row spacing may vary between 60-90 cm, but in

some regions in the USA narrower rows are used (45 cm).

13.2. táblázat - Table 26.Sowing data of peanut

Sowing time: 10 – 20 May (soil temperature 15-18 °C)

Row spacing (cm): 60-90

Depth (cm): 5-6

Seed rate (thousand/ha): 100-200 thousand/ha

1000 seed mass (g): 400-500

22. Diseases of peanut

Spotted wilt Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV): Symptom is stunting and dead terminal buds. Usually pale

yellow rings appear on leaves. In the generative parts there are twisted petioles, stunted pods, and red seed coats.

The virus is transmitted mainly by thrips feed on peanut plants.

Early leaf spot (Cercospora arachidicola): Early leaf spot usually causes brown lesions (spots) that are

surrounded by a yellow halo on the leaves.

Limb rot (Rhizoctonia solani): It is a very dangerous disease of peanut. Dark or grayish-brown lesions are

usually found at the basis of the stem just above the ground. Irrigated crops are severely attacked.

Week 14. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER



Late leaf spot (Cercosporidium personatum): Dark brown to black spots appear on the leaves. The symptoms

are similar to early leaf spot, but the spots usually not have halos.

Stem and peg rot (white mold) (Sclerotium rolfsii): Symptoms are wilting of leaves, stem lesions, shredded

stems and pegs, rotted pods. White mycelium appears on lower stems. Infected plants usually die.

Crown rot (black mold) (Aspergillus niger): It is a soilborne disease. Black fungus mycelium develops on the

infected roots. The Aspergillus can attack peanut in all development stages.

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae): The fungus persists in the soil for long time (with its microsclerotia). It

attacks the vascular system of the plant causing wilt. The leaves turn to pale green and curl inward. Excess water

content of the soil (anaerobic conditions) helps verticillium to infect.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) : Fusarium wilt is a soilborne disease. The infection results loss of turgor

pressure and wilt. Characteristic is the orange-brown discolouration of the vascular bundles. The affected plants

lost the foliage and die. Root-knot nematodes presence increases significantly the fusarium infestation.

23. Pests of peanut

White grubs (Melolontha spp.): Grubs are very injurious to peanuts. They chew large irregular holes in the

taproot. The damage is similar to wireworms and severely attacked plants may die.

Wireworms (Elateridae): Wireworms are the immature stages of click beetles. Several species of wireworms

can attack peanuts. Larvae start feeding on the underground parts of peanut plants. Early season attack in peanut

crop causes major stand loss. In later developing stages wireworms make large holes in the pods to feed on the

seeds. Crop rotation is not effective control method, due to they have several host plants.

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.): Cutworms are caterpillars and can cause serious damage by feeding on the stems of

young plants near the soil surface causing the plants to fall over. Later in the season, cutworms can climb the

plants and feed on foliage.

Aphids (Aphis spp.): They are sucking pests of the peanut. Aphids may transmit many viral diseases, including

soybean mosaic, bean yellow mosaic, peanut mottle, peanut stunt, and peanut stripe. They live in colonies and

spread rapidly. Attacked shoots develop distorted.

Velvetbean caterpillar (Anticarsia gemmatalis): Velvetbean caterpillar is the most damaging pest of peanuts in

many areas of the American continent. Its primary host is the soybean. Caterpillars cause serious damage by

consuming foliage of peanut. Complete defoliation may result.

Corn earworm (Heliothis zea): Corn earworm is pest of more than 15 crops between them is also the peanut.

The caterpillars feed on its leaves causing significant (higher than 50 %) defoliation damage often. Defoliation

during the critical period of growth has great effect on reducing yield. Early sown peanut has less damage than

late sown.

Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): They cause injury as they feed sucking the sap from the plant‟s cells.

Damaged areas typically appear marked with many small, light flecks, giving the plant a somewhat speckled

appearance. They also produce web on the surface of the attacked leaves and shoots. In case of severe

infestations, leaves become discolored, gray, silvery or bronze. Spider mites can kill plants or cause serious

stress to them.

Rednecked peanut worm (Stegasta basqueella): Larvae feed on young leaves of developing peanut plants. Due

to its feeding habit, the damage is readily evident. Damage from this insect is not serious usually, and it causes

even a small amount of yield loss. This species is fairly easy to control with most of the insecticides labeled.

Pest control:



• pest-free seed

Week 14. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER






24. Harvesting peanut

Eight to 14 days after pollination aerial pegs will grow 5 to 8 cm into the soil and then turn to a horizontal

orientation to mature into a peanut pod. Prior to harvesting, the plants start to lose their green color and the

leaves turn yellow.

Harvesting may begin when the 60-70 % of pods is ripened.

Peanut is harvested in 2 stages:

1. machine (digger-shaker-inverter) lifts the plant from the soil and inverts the bush in windrows for drying.

There are 2-8 row models.

2. combining, threshing with special peanut combine. Optionally vine spreaders can be mounted on the

combine for even distribution of peanut straw. Properly maintained and adjusted, peanut combine is capable

of picking peanuts with loose-shelled kernels rate from 0 % to 2 %, depending on conditions.

Yield is 0.8-3.0 t/ha. Seed moisture content should be 9-10 % or less for safe storage, due to the high oil content

of the seed.

25. Questions related to the integrated production of other oil crops (oilpalm and peanut)

1. What are the uses of oilpalm and peanut?

2. What are the data of peanut sowing?

3. What are the main diseases of the oilpalm?

4. What are the most dangerous pests of the peanut?

5. How and when can we harvest the peanut and oilpalm fruit?


14. fejezet - Week 15. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER OILCROPS (LINSEED, POPPY SEED,SESAME)

14.1. táblázat - Table 27.The linseed, poppyseed and sesame production area in the

world (2010)

Area (ha) Production (tons)

Linseed 2 320 391 1 933 056

Poppyseed 142 034 92 922

Sesame 7 869 051 4 316 906

1. Linseed

Origin of linseed

Linseed is originated from Fertile Crescent, it was already in use 30,000 years BC (as fiber flax).

2. Taxonomical classification of linseed

Family: Linaceae Flax family

Genus: Linum Flax (50-60 species)

Linum usitatissimum L. Common flax

Linum usitatissimum conv. macrosperma Linseed (oil)

Linum usitatissimum conv. microsperma Flax (fiber)

3. Uses of linseed

Oil: (iodine number is over 160). Linseed oil goes rancid (oxidizes) more rapidly than most other seed oils.

• Edible oil (it has anti-aging effect). It is the richest natural source of linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid.

• Linseed oil is drying oil it cam polymerize into solid form. Due to its polymerizing property, it can be used as

varnish in wood finishing. It is also used in oil paints and alkyd resins. The linoleum was made of linseed oil

originally.

• used as a nutritional supplement (it has high level of α-linolenic acid)

Food: whole seeds or ground seeds

Medicine: pharmaceutical industry (Seed is used for disorders of the heart and blood vessels, including high

cholesterol, (atherosclerosis), high blood pressure (hypertension), and coronary artery disease. It is also used for

acne, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), kidney problems, symptoms of menopause, breast pain,

diabetes, obesity and weight loss, HIV/AIDS, depression, bladder infections, malaria, and rheumatoid arthritis.)

Feed: The by-product of oil extraction, the flaxseed meal or linseed meal is a source of protein used in livestock

feeds, especially in the rations of ruminant animals.

Week 15. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER

OILCROPS (LINSEED, POPPY

SEED,SESAME)


4. Chemical composition of linseed

Protein: 18-20 %


Fat: 41-45 %

Minerals: 3.4-3.8 %

14.1. ábra - Figure 103.Linseed plants in flowering

5. Climatic conditions of linseed

Linseed is one of the most demanding field crops. It needs warm climate.

Minimum soil temperature to germination is 2-3 °C. Rapid and even germination occur at 7-8 °C temperature.

In early development stage, shortly after emergence it can tolerate -4 °C. Cool temperatures after flowering tend

to increase oil (particularly linolenic acid) content of the seeds.

It needs good and even water supply, due to its weak root system and sensitivity to drought.

Linseed varieties require short daylength.

6. Soil conditions of linseed

Generally linseed does best on well-drained soils with good water-holding capacity.

Good soils:

soils with good water and nutrient balance

chernozem, brown forest soils, silty loam soils

Not suitable soils:

sandy soils, sodic soils, very heavy soils, poorly drained soils

7. Crop rotation of linseed

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SEED,SESAME)


Linseed is very demanding regarding to the crop rotation and forecrops. Crops that use high amount of water are

bad forecrops for linseed. It is very sensitive to residuals of wide range of herbicides was used in previous crop.

Good forecrops:


Medium forecrops:

maize for silage, early maize

Bad forecrops:

pulses (peas, beans, soybean, fababean, alfalfa, clovers), late maize, sugarbeet, potato, rapeseed,

sunflower, sorghums, sudangrass

linseed should be sown only once in every 6-7 years on same field

8. Soil preparation of linseed

Conventional tillage system can be used to prepare seedbed to linseed sowing. Due to its small seed, linseed

should be sown in a well prepared, firm, moist and weed-free seedbed. Moisture saving is important during the

soil preparation process. Ploughing should be 22-26 cm deep.

9. Nutrient supply of linseed

Excess nitrogen application stimulates vegetative growth and increases disease susceptibility and risk of

lodging. Linseed has high potassium demand, K deficiency causes decreasing in oil content. Linseed is also

sensitive to zinc deficiency. Zinc-deficient plants are chlorotic and terminal bud may die. Applications of zinc

sulfate are common in Europe.


Linseed plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg seed +

straw:

N: 4.0 (kg/100 kg)

P2O5: 1.3 (kg/100 kg)

K2O: 5.0 (kg/100 kg)

CaO: 1.8 (kg/100 kg)


N: 80-90

P2O5: 50-70

K2O: 70-100

10. Sowing of linseed

Linseed should be sown soon after the seedbed is prepared, before the soil dries out and before weed seeds have

a chance to germinate. Sowing as early as possible is essential to high yields. Ear It should be sown shallow,

uniformly 2 cm deep. Seeding depths greater than 3 cm result in significant reductions of emergence and weak

seedlings that are susceptible to diseases.

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Row spacing is 24 cm, but there are data in the literature that 30 cm spacing also could be successful in special

conditions.

The seeding rate is from 13 to 14 million seeds/hectare (80-120 kg/hectare). Higher seedrate may be required for

varieties with a yellow seedcoat. Low emergence rate of 50 to 60 % is common in linseed fields.

14.2. táblázat - Table 28.Sowing data of linseed


Row spacing (cm): 24

Depth (cm): 2

Seed rate (million/ha): 13-14

1000 seed mass (g): 6-9

11. Diseases of linseed

Rust (Melampsora lini): Symptom is appearing orange-brown coloured pustules on the leaves and stems. Cool,

moist, weather favors fungus to develop and spread. Proper crop rotation and deep plowing that buries straw and

stubble helps in controlling the disease. There are resistant varieties.

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum): Symptoms are small spots of white powdery mycelia that rapidly

spread to cover the entire leaf surface. Heavily infected leaves dry down. Powdery mildew may cause severe

defoliation and reduce the yield and quality of seed.

Stembreak and browning (Polyspora lini): Canker at the base of the stem weakens the plant, and the stem may

easily break. Stem breaking is the most conspicuous symptom of the disease. Sowing pathogen-free seed and

fungicidal seed treatment reduces the risk of Polyspora damage.

Pasmo (Septoria linicola): Circular yellow-brown spots appear on the leaves at the lower parts of the plant. The

disease can infect linseed in all the development stages, but plants become more susceptible when begin the boll

formation. Pasmo can cause serious damage by reducing yield and quality of seed.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lini): It is a seed-borne fungal disease that can cause seedling blight. Sunken red-

brown patches appear on the stem of mature plants. It can cause severe damages, the yield loss can reach 30 %.

Brown stem blight (Alternaria linicola): Symptoms are brown lesions on the cotyledons or lower leaves of

linseed plants. Root system is usually reduced and there are swollen roots. Infected seedlings may damp off.

Stem mold and rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum): The fungus can infect more than 400 host plant species, in

linseed fields it cause stem rot. Affected stems are white and frequently become brittle and shredded. Presence

of white mold cover on the stem is common under favourable weather conditions. It can cause economically

significant yield loss.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): The roots of infected plants become completely rotted and the plants

"damped-off". Symptoms may appear on the flax plant at all stages of development. Diseased older plants stunt

or may wilt rapidly and die. Some varieties are highly wilt resistant.

Control:

• crop rotation



Week 15. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER


SEED,SESAME)




12. Pests of linseed

Longhorned weevils (Sitona lineata, Sitona crinita): Adult weevils can cause extensive damage to seedlings of

linseed in spring. Severe ragging or complete defoliation results significant yield losses.

Aphids (many species) (Aphis spp.): Many species of aphids can damage linseed. They live in colonies and

suck the sap of the plant. Severely infested plant becomes distorted. Aphids can significantly reduce yields and

they are also dangerous virus vectors.

Flax thrips (Thrips linarius): It is a widespread pest of linseed. Symptom is silvery discoloration on the leaves

and stunting of plants. The pests are small, it is very difficult to find them with unaided eye. Proper crop rotation

helps reducing the damage.

Flax flea beetle (Longitarsus parvulus): These tiny beetles chew little holes in the cotyledons and young leaves.

The damage can be very significant in dry springs.

Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): Spider mites are sucking pests; they are also vectors of some viral diseases.

Severely infested plants may die.

Cutworms (Noctuidae) (Mamestra sp., Heliothis sp.): Caterpillars feed on leaves and young stems of linseed,

reducing plant density and causing yield loss. They usually remain below ground, cut off the young plants near

the soil surface.

Pest control:




• pest-free seed



13. Weed control

The competition ability of linseed is very weak. Chemical weed control is essential. Due to linseed is sensitive

to herbicides, chemicals should be applied very carefully. Appropriate herbicide choosing is also important.

14. Harvesting of linseed

Harvest begins at mid or end July in Hungary, when seed moisture is 15-17 %. It can be combined in the field.

Low cylinder speed and proper adjusting should be applied to avoid seed splitting.

Post-harvest ripening lasts 60-90 days after harvesting. Linseed should be stored in shallow layer and ventilated

in this period. Seed moisture content should be 9 % or less for safe storage, due to the high oil content.

15. Poppy

Origin of poppyseed

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Poppy had its origin in eastern Mediterranean region and Near East. It was cultivated in the ancient Egyptian

civilization, in the Bronze Age (Minoan civilization in Crete). The chromosome number: 2n=22.

16. Taxonomical classification of poppy

Family: Papaveraceae Poppy family

Genus: Papaver Poppy (50-60 species)

Papaver somniferum L. Common poppy, Opium poppy

Papaver rhoeas L Red poppy, it is a significant weed of cereals

17. Uses of poppyseed

Oil: cooking oil, varnish, oil paints, contrast agent

Food: spice, baked goods, cakes, desserts

Pharmaceutical uses: morphine and codeine

18. Nutrient content of poppyseed

Protein: 18-22 %


Fat: 47-53 %

Minerals: 2.2-2.5 %

>60 alkaloids

14.2. ábra - Figure 104.Poppy flower

19. Climatic conditions of poppy

Poppy requires minimum 3-5 °C temperature for germination. The optimum is 28-32 °C. Seedlings damage

below -3 °C temperatures. It prefers cool climate in the first period. Later, in flowering stage, it needs warm, dry

weather. HU: 2000-2200 °C. The growing season is 120-160 days long (spring varieties). Water demand is 280-

300 mm. Poppy plant requires plenty of water for germination. It is susceptible to strong winds.

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PRODUCTION OF OTHER


SEED,SESAME)


20. Soil conditions of poppy

Poppy requires fertile soils, with good drainage and good nutrient supplying ability.

Good soils:

soils with good water and nutrient balance, adequate Ca-content

chernozem, brown forest soils, alluvial soils

Not suitable soils:

sandy soils, acidic soils (pH <6), sodic soils, very heavy meadow soils

21. Crop rotation of poppy

Good forecrops:

cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley), potato, mustard

Medium forecrops:

rapeseed, sugarbeet

Bad forecrops:

alfalfa, red clover, maize, sunflower, sorghums, sudangrass

poppyseed should be sown only once in every 4-6 years on same field

22. Soil cultivation of poppy

Poppyseed requires very good quality, well prepared, fine seedbed, due to its very small seeds. Conventional

soil preparing system can be used. Before fall plowing the basic fertilizers should be spread. Conserving the

adequate moisture content in the upper layer of the soil is very important. In dry seedbed the germination will be

uneven and slow, resulting significant yield loss.

23. Nutrient supply of poppyseed


Poppy plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg seed +

straw:

N: 4.5 (kg/100 kg)

P2O5: 1.5 (kg/100 kg)

K2O: 5.0 (kg/100 kg)


N: 100-120

P2O5: 80-110

K2O: 80-100

24. Sowing of poppy

Week 15. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER


SEED,SESAME)


14.3. táblázat - Table 29.Sowing data of poppy

Sowing time: 20 February – 10 March

Row spacing (cm): 45

Depth (cm): 1 – 1.5

Seed rate (million/ha): 1.2 million/ha

1000 seed mass (g): 0.25-0.60

25. Diseases of poppyseed

Downy mildew (Peronospora arborescens): Symptoms are chlorotic or necrotic spots on the upper leaf surface,

a purplish-grey fluffy mold on undersides. Cool, moist weather favors disease spreading.

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni): Powdery mildew is a very widespread disease of poppy and can cause

significant yield losses. The symptoms are white, powdery spots on the upper or lower surface of the leaves.

Severely infected leaves will dry down.

Leaf spot (Helminthosporium papaveris): It can attack the poppy in different development stages and produces

various symptoms. The leaves of infected plants dry out and fall off, the capsule grows stunted. Young plants

may die.

White mold (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum): Symptom of the disease is appearing brown lesions shortly followed by

fluffy, white mold on infected host plants. This pathogen fungus is widespread and has many host species.

Damping off (Rhizoctonia solani): This is a soil-borne disease. Infected plants wilt, become stunted, and turn

yellow or pale green. In addition, the crown can rot, and the plants die.

Alternaria spot (Alternaria brassicae var. somniferi): It causes grey-brown to yellow-brown spots on the

leaves. Alternaria can cause serious damage in poppy.

Smut (Entyloma fuscum): Light brown spots appear on the leaves of the plant.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): It is a soil-borne fungal disease. Infected seedlings die rapidly.

Control:

• crop rotation





26. Pests of poppyseed

Wireworms (Elateridae): They are larvae of click beetles. Wireworms are elongate, hard shelled larvae, their

colour is usually from yellowish-brown to brown. They feed on roots causing weak root system.

Longhorned weevils (Sitona lineata, Sitona crinita): The adults feed on seedlings and young plants in spring.

The damage can be serious.

Week 15. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER


SEED,SESAME)


Aphids (many species) (Aphis spp.): They extract the juice of the plants causing distorted development and

stunted growth. They can reproduce themselves very rapidly, many generations develop in a growing season.

Aphids transmit pathogen viruses.

Poppy weevil (Ceutorrhynchus macula-alba): The most dangerous pest of poppy. Females lay eggs on the

young capsule at the end of the flowering. The larvae feed on the developing seeds inside the capsules.

Alfalfa snout beetle (Otiorrhynchus ligustici): Adults feed on leaves of poppy, chewing great holes in them.

They can cause severe damage in young plants in spring.

Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): They suck the sap of the plant. Leaves become usually dry and silvery

color appears. Even a minor infestation can have a significant stress to plants.

Cutworms (Noctuidae) (Mamestra spp., Heliothis spp.): The caterpillars live in the upper layer of the soil and

feed on young seedlings at night.

Pest control:




• pest-free seed



27. Weed control

Young seedlings grow slowly. Mechanical weed control is important during the soil preparation process. Poppy

is sensitive to herbicides, thus chemicals in weed control should be applied carefully.

28. Harvesting poppyseed

Harvesting starts when seed moisture is 9-12 %. It is usually mid July- mid August in Hungary. Poppyseed can

be combined directly in the field with special adapter.

Seed moisture content should be 9 % or less for safe storage, due to the high oil content.

29. Sesame

Origin of sesame

Sesame is originated from India, domesticated 5,000 years ago, there are several wild species in Africa. The

largest producers are India, Chine, Myanmar and Sudan.

30. Taxonomical classification of sesame

Family: Pedaliaceae Sesame family

Genus: Sesamum Sesames (about 20 species)

Sesamum indicum L. Oriental sesame

31. Uses of sesame

Week 15. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER


SEED,SESAME)


Oil: very stable vegetable oil (edible oil, margarine, salads)

Food: whole seed and ground seed (phytosterols, reduce the blood cholesterol level)

Feed: sesame meal (by-product of oil extraction)

32. Nutrient content of sesame seed

Protein: 16-23 %


Fat: 48-60 %

Minerals: 3.3-3.8 %

14.3. ábra - Figure 105.Sesame plant in bloom

14.4. ábra - Figure 106.Sesame seeds


Week 15. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER


SEED,SESAME)


Sesame requires warm climate. The optimal daytime temperature is between 25-27 °C. Below 20 °C the growth

is reduced. At 10 °C temperature the germination and growth is inhibited. Sesame is very drought tolerant, it is

one of the most drought tolerant crops in the world, but requires about 500-660 mm water for reasonable high

yield. Wind can cause shattering at harvest.

34. Soil conditions of sesame

Good soils:

well-drained fertile soils with neutral pH

brown forest soils, alluvial soils, black soils

Not suitable soils:

salty soils (very low salt tolerance), waterlogged soils, very alkaline or acidic soils

35. Crop rotation of sesame

Good forecrops:

cereals (wheat, rye, oats), cotton, peanuts, sorghums, alfalfa, soybeans

Medium forecrops:

maize (herbicide residuals)

36. Seedbed preparation of sesame

Sesame requires well-prepared, warm, moist, weed-free seedbed, due to its small seeds. Good drainage is

important, because the plant is extremely susceptible to waterlogging. Several generations of weeds can be

killed by repeated tillage before sowing.

37. Nutrient supply of sesame

Balanced NPK fertilization is essential to high yield and good quality. Sesame has deep root system and

excellent nutrient (and water) uptake ability.


N: 20-50

P2O5: 13-25

K2O: 13-25

38. Sowing of sesame

Sesame requires warm soil to germinate. It should not be sown below 21 °C soil temperature. Early sown

sesame generally gives the best yields, but sowing too early can reduce yields because the seedlings will grow

slowly in the cold weather. Row spacing varies widely depending on the regions and ecological conditions. The

sowing depth should not exceed 2 cm, due to its small seed.

14.4. táblázat - Table 30.Sowing data of sesame

Sowing time: Soil temperature: 21 °C

Week 15. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER


SEED,SESAME)


Row spacing (cm): 30-76.2

Depth (cm): 1.5 – 2.0

Seed rate (million/ha): 1.2-2.0

1000 seed mass (g): 1.2-3.7

39. Diseases of sesame

Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca fudiginia): Characteristic of powdery mildew is greyish white powdery cover

on affected plant parts. The disease can infect all parts above ground, leaves, flower buds and capsules. With

time the powdery growth can cover the entire leaf area. This disease can cause severe damage and yield loss on

sesame fields.

Phytophtora blight (Phytophtora parasitica var. sesami): It can attack sesame plant at all development stages.

There are brown patches on the leaves and stems that become black with age. It can cause very serious damage.

Root rot (Macrophomina phaseolina): This is a widespread disease which has many host plants. It attacks

young seedling, affected stems become water soaked and the plants die.

Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria sesame): Small (1-8 mm in diameter), dark brown water soaked, round to

irregular lesions appear on the leaves. Usually concentric rings can be seen in the lesions.

Damping off (Rhizoctonia solani): The roots of infected plants turn to black and plants suddenly wilt. The stem

becomes black at the ground level.

Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora sesami): Symptoms are small, angular brown spots on the leaves with gray

centre and dark margin. The spots are delimited by veins. There are resistant varieties.

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): It is a soil-borne disease. Early infected seedlings will die during the

emergence. Later infection causes wilting, chlorosis and premature drying of leaves. The vascular system

becomes brown. Fusarium wilt can cause severe damage and significant yield loss.

40. Pests of sesame

Leaf webber and capsule borer (Antigastra catalaunalis): Young larvae feed on top leaves. The infested

shoots die or stop growing. Larvae feed on the flowers at flowering, and can bore into capsule and feed on

developing seeds.

Death’s head hawk moth (Acherontia styx): Caterpillars feed on the leaves and defoliate the plant caused

severe damage.

Linseed gall fly (Dasyneura sesame): Larvae make holes in the buds and damage the flowers.

Gall fly (Asphondylia sesami): Mosquito like fly, maggots feed inside the floral bud, leading to formation of

gall like structure which do not develop into flowers. The affected buds wither and drop.

Aphids (Aphis spp.): Aphids suck the sap of the plants, the leaves are curled and crinkled. Leaves become shiny

and sticky due to honeydew excreted by the insects.

Pest control

• crop rotation with crops no relatives

• pest free seeds

• chemical control (pesticide spraying or dusting)

Week 15. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER


SEED,SESAME)



41. Harvesting sesame

Sesame must be harvested before all capsules are mature, due to shattering risk. (Shattering can reach 75 %)

It can be combined directly in the field (some varieties).

Low drum speed (350-400 rpm) and a wide spacing between drum and concave should be set to avoid splitting.

Seed moisture content should be 6 % or less for safe storage.

42. Questions related to integrated production of other oil crops (linseed, poppyseed, sesame)

1. What are the uses of linseed and poppyseed?

2. What are the data of linseed, sesame and poppyseed sowing?

3. What are the main diseases of the sesame and poppy?

4. What are the most dangerous pests of the poppy?

5. How and when can we harvest the linseed, poppy and sesame?

43. References

C. M. Knott. 1987. A Key for Stages of Development of the Pea (Pisum sativum). Annals of Applied Biology

111:233-245.

D. Ray Langham, Jerry Riney, Glenn Smith, and Terry Wiemers (2008): SESAME GROWER GUIDE,

SESACO

E.A. Oelke1, D.H. Putnam1, T.M. Teynor and E.S. Oplinger Quinoa

George Acquaah (2001): Principles of Crop Production. Theory, Techniques, and Technology. Pearson Prentice

Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. ISBN 0-13-114556-8

John H. Martin – Richard P. Waldren – David L. Stamp (2006): Principles of Field Crop Production. Pearson

Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio. ISBN 0-13-025967-5

John L. Havlin – Samuel L. Tisdale – James D. Beaton – Werner L. Nelson (2005): Soil Fertility and Fertilizers.

Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. ISBN 0-13-027824-6

Koziol M.J. (1992): Chemical composition and nutritional evaluation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.).

Journal of Food Composition Analysis, 5: 35–68.

Partap T., Galwey, N.W. (1995): Chenopods. Chenopodium spp. Promoting the conservation and use of

underutilized and neglected crops. 22. IPGRI:63.

Smartt J, Hymowitz T (1985) Domestication and the evaluation of grain legumes. In: Summerfield RJ, Roberts

EH (eds) Grain legume crops. Collins, London, pp 37–72

Soybean Growth Stages Soybean Extension and Research Program, Department of Agronomy, Iowa State

University (www.soybeanmanagement.info).

Te-Tzu Chang, E.A. Bardenas (1965): The morphology and varietal characteristics of the rice plant

Week 15. INTEGRATED

PRODUCTION OF OTHER


SEED,SESAME)


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