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Saneamento e meio ambienteDenise Maria Penna Kronemberger
Rodrigo da Silveira PereiraElpidio Antnio Venturini de
Freitas
Jos Antnio ScarcelloJudicael Clevelario Junior
Saneamento ambiental abrange aspectos que vo alm do saneamento
bsico,
englobando o abastecimento de gua potvel, a coleta, o tratamento
e a disposio
fi nal dos esgotos e dos resduos slidos e gasosos, os demais
servios de limpeza
urbana, a drenagem urbana, o controle ambiental de vetores e
reservatrios de
doenas, a disciplina da ocupao e de uso da terra e obras
especializadas para
proteo e melhoria das condies de vida. Assim, este captulo
procura ressaltar
a natureza transversa das questes de saneamento que se relaciona
tambm com
os demais temas apresentados no Atlas.
Diversos problemas ambientais esto associados falta ou
precariedade
do saneamento, tais como: poluio ou contaminao na captao de gua
para o
abastecimento humano, poluio de rios, lagos, lagoas, aquferos,
doenas, ero-
so acelerada, assoreamento, inundaes frequentes, com as
consequentes perdas
humanas e materiais, para mencionar apenas alguns exemplos.
Entre os servios de saneamento, o manejo de guas pluviais (MAP)
em reas
urbanas constitui um dos mais importantes, considerando o
crescimento das cidades
e o planejamento urbano, bem como a manuteno das condies de
segurana e de
sade da populao. Este servio compreende essencialmente a coleta,
o escoamento
e a drenagem das guas das chuvas por equipamentos urbanos
compostos por redes
de drenagem subterrnea e superfi cial, bueiros, bocas de lobo,
sarjetas, dispositivos
dissipadores de energia e controle de vazo, e a posterior
disposio dos efl uentes em
pontos de lanamento ou corpos receptores que o objetivam o
escoamento rpido
das guas por ocasio das chuvas, prevenindo inundaes, visando
segurana e
sade da populao, alm de permitir a ampliao do sistema virio.
Aproximadamente 95% dos municpios fazem MAP, sendo que a
maioria
utiliza cursos dgua permanentes como principais corpos
receptores (lagos, rios,
crregos, riachos, igaraps, etc.). Neste sentido, em um contexto
de crescente
impermeabilizao e reduo da capacidade dos solos em infi ltrar as
guas das
chuvas, o correto funcionamento e a manuteno do sistema de
drenagem urbana
permitem a atenuao de problemas ambientais, especialmente
processos erosi-
vos acelerados, assoreamento e inundaes. Alm disso, o rpido
escoamento das
guas pluviais previne a formao de poas e alagados, evitando a
proliferao
de mosquitos, responsveis pela transmisso de doenas, como a
dengue, a febre
amarela, a malria e a leishmaniose.
Uma varivel importante para avaliar a qualidade do manejo de
guas pluviais
a pavimentao de ruas com sistema de drenagem subterrnea
(tubulaes e/ou
galerias e/ou canais) na rea urbana. Os maiores percentuais
(acima de 50%) de vias
pavimentadas so encontrados nos municpios das Regies Sul e
Sudeste do Pas.
Cerca de 27,3% dos municpios que fazem MAP informaram a
existncia de
processos erosivos que afetaram o sistema de drenagem urbana, e
32,3% declararam
ter eroso na rea urbana nos ltimos cinco anos, a partir da data
de referncia
da Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Bsico - PNSB 2008. Entre
estes, a maioria
(63%) associou a eroso urbana (do tipo laminar) a terrenos sem
cobertura vegetal,
e 47% afi rmaram possuir eroso do leito natural de cursos dgua.
Entre os fatores
agravantes da eroso foram mencionados, principalmente, o sistema
inadequado
de drenagem urbana (48% dos municpios com o problema), as
condies geol-
gicas e morfolgicas do terreno (48% das municipalidades), e a
ocupao intensa e
desordenada do solo (46% dos municpios), alm de outras causas
(desmatamento,
lanamento inadequado de lixo, etc.).
Em sistemas de drenagem muito antigos ou cujo dimensionamento
e/ou
ampliaes no acompanharam o crescimento da rea urbana e do
sistema virio
dos municpios, h a tendncia de acumulao do material sedimentar
erodido.
O assoreamento do sistema de drenagem urbana atinge 40% daqueles
que fazem
MAP, e um dos importantes causadores do estrangulamento do
sistema de drena-
gem urbana, propiciando inundaes, que ocorrem em 43% dos
municpios que
realizam MAP.
Sem o controle da eroso, os corpos receptores tm seu potencial
de vazo dimi-
nudo com o assoreamento, criando srios problemas por ocasio de
grandes chuvas.
Em 19% dos municpios com MAP, ocorre associao entre eroso e
assoreamento, e
em 25% deles h uma conjugao do assoreamento com as inundaes.
As inundaes ocorreram, predominantemente, em reas urbanas
natu-
ralmente inundveis por cursos dgua (61% dos municpios com
declarao de
ocorrncia de inundaes). Foram associadas, principalmente, a
obstruo de
bueiros e de bocas de lobo (45% dos municpios com este problema
ambiental), a
ocupao intensa e desordenada do solo (43% dos municpios), e a
outras causas
(obras inadequadas, dimensionamento incorreto do projeto,
lanamento de lixo,
etc.). A gesto adequada de bacias hidrogrfi cas, o controle
sobre a retirada da co-
bertura vegetal e a ocupao do solo so fundamentais para o bom
funcionamento
dos sistemas de drenagem urbana.
As inundaes, quando associadas ao lanamento de esgoto no tratado
em
rios e a disposio inadequada do lixo, podem causar srios
problemas sanitrios
e de sade pblica, e contribuir para disseminar doenas de
veiculao hdrica,
aumentando a incidncia de leptospirose, de hepatites virais, de
diarreias e outras.
A leptospirose, por exemplo, uma doena transmitida
principalmente atravs do
contato com a gua contaminada pela urina de ratos. No ano de
2008, cerca de
12% dos municpios brasileiros apresentaram casos confi rmados
desta doena, e
em 3% ocorreram bitos, sendo os maiores nmeros (de casos e de
bitos) veri-
fi cados nas regies metropolitanas. Por outro lado, as taxas de
internao foram
mais altas no Sul do Pas, sobretudo no Rio Grande do Sul e em
Santa Catarina, e
esto associados s fortes inundaes ocorridas neste ano.
Ressaltamos, portanto,
que a principal estratgia de controle deste tipo de doenas o
investimento em
infraestrutura de saneamento.
Embora a grande maioria dos municpios brasileiros disponha do
servio de
coleta de lixo, pouco mais da metade (50,8%) o destina para
vazadouros a cu aberto
(lixes). Apesar disso, houve um decrscimo em relao ao ano de
2000, quando
o percentual era 72,3%. Ao analisar este indicador por estrato
populacional, mais
da metade dos municpios pequenos destinavam seus resduos para
lixes (52%
dos municpios com at 20 mil habitantes, 53% dos municpios entre
21 e 100 mil
habitantes). Trata-se de um grande desafi o a ser enfrentado,
pois a disposio ina-
dequada do lixo pode causar poluio das guas e do solo, bem como
problemas
de sade, sobretudo para os catadores de lixo.
Uma das solues mais viveis para reduzir o volume de lixo
produzido,
e, consequentemente, a disposio inadequada dos resduos slidos, a
coleta
seletiva do lixo. Esta vem se expandindo no Pas, tendo passado
de 8,2% dos mu-
nicpios, em 2000, para 17,9%, em 2008, sobretudo nos estados das
Regies Sul
e Sudeste. O percentual ainda baixo, sendo que entre os que
realizam a coleta
seletiva, apenas 38% a fazem em todo o municpio. A coleta
seletiva contribui para
diminuir a quantidade de resduos disposta em aterros sanitrios e
outros destinos,
gera empregos, melhora a condio de trabalho dos catadores de
lixo, permite a
reciclagem e, com isso, economiza energia e recursos
naturais.
Um indicador relevante no contexto das preocupaes sobre
saneamento,
meio ambiente e sade pblica a destinao fi nal dos resduos slidos
especiais.
Aproximadamente 42% dos municpios brasileiros depositam o lixo
sptico (hospita-
lar) em conjunto com os resduos comuns, sobretudo nas Regies
Nordeste e Norte,
enquanto os demais os enviam para locais de tratamento ou
aterros de segurana.
Em relao s embalagens vazias de agrotxicos, nos estados do
Centro-
sul est o maior nmero de reas com lavouras que controlam o
manejo destas
embalagens, destacando-se o Paran, o Mato Grosso e o Rio Grande
do Sul. Por
outro lado, diversos municpios declararam existir poluio por
agrotxicos nos
trs tipos de captao de gua para o abastecimento urbano (superfi
cial, poo raso
e poo profundo), notadamente na captao superfi cial. Isto pode
ser explicado
-
Atlas de saneamento 2011Saneamento e meio ambiente
pelo grande volume destas substncias aplicado nas lavouras, e
sua proximidade
dos pontos de captao, associados a algumas propriedades dos
agrotxicos, que
podem ser persistentes, mveis e txicos na gua, afetando
sobremaneira as guas
em superfcie.
A escassez de gua e o estresse provocado pela poluio e/ou
contaminao
podem ameaar a segurana da populao, afetando o abastecimento
pblico, a
produo de alimentos, a sade e a recreao. A sustentabilidade dos
recursos
hdricos requer uma gesto ambiental integrada, que possibilite os
usos mltiplos
sem provocar a queda na qualidade e a reduo da quantidade de
gua.
Cerca de 23% dos municpios brasileiros declararam conviver com o
raciona-
mento de gua, sendo que em 41% deles o racionamento constante,
independente
da poca do ano. Os motivos so diversos, predominando a seca ou
estiagem (66%
dos municpios) como causadora do racionamento. As demais causas
investigadas
foram: insufi cincia de gua no manancial (41%), defi cincia na
produo (35%),
defi cincia na distribuio (30%) e populao fl utuante em pocas de
veraneio
(6%). Os quatro primeiros motivos esto presentes em grande parte
dos municpios
nordestinos. O indicador apresenta um padro disperso por todo o
Brasil, com maior
concentrao nos municpios da Regio Nordeste do Pas.
As captaes de gua de superfcie destinada ao abastecimento
humano,
mesmo que cercadas de cuidados com a qualidade do manancial,
esto sujeitas a
fatores que comprometem a qualidade das guas captadas, tais
como: lanamento
de esgoto sanitrio, despejos de resduos industriais, destinao
inadequada de
lixo, atividade mineradora e presena de resduos de agrotxicos. A
maioria dos
municpios declarou a ausncia de fontes de poluio ou contaminao
na captao
de gua. Considerando os que declararam poluio ou contaminao,
juntos, o
esgoto sanitrio, os resduos de agrotxicos e a destinao
inadequada do lixo foram
relatados como responsveis por 72% das incidncias de poluio na
captao em
mananciais superfi ciais, 54% em poos profundos e 60% em poos
rasos.
Entre as trs formas de captao, a de gua superfi cial foi a que
apresentou
maior incidncia do problema, com 26% dos municpios que tm captao
de gua
superfi cial com fontes de poluio ou contaminao; 8,3% dos
municpios tm
fontes de poluio na captao em poo raso, e 3,3% dos municpios tm
poluio
na captao em poo profundo. As captaes de gua superfi cial foram,
tambm,
as que apresentaram o maior nmero de fontes de poluio ou
contaminao por
ponto de captao (at seis fontes). As captaes superfi ciais se
encontram mais
ameaadas porque so mais vulnerveis s presses antrpicas.
Diversos municpios lanam esgoto no tratado em rios, lagos ou
lagoas
(30,5% do total dos municpios), e utilizam estes corpos
receptores para vrios usos
a jusante, como o abastecimento de gua, a recreao, a irrigao e a
aquicultura.
Entre estes municpios, 23% lanam o esgoto no tratado nos corpos
hdricos e os
utilizam a jusante para a irrigao, e 16% os usam para o
abastecimento humano.
Isto encarece o tratamento da gua para o abastecimento, pois h
um custo extra para
recuperar sua qualidade, e pode causar doenas s pessoas, entre
outros impactos.
Quanto s condies gerais de sade pblica, apresentada a
distribuio
espacial de algumas doenas relacionadas com o saneamento
ambiental inadequa-
do (DRSAI), como as diarreias, a dengue, a leptospirose, entre
outras. Procurou-se
exemplifi car os diferentes tipos de relacionamento entre meio
ambiente, doenas e
saneamento. A precariedade nos sistemas de abastecimento de gua,
esgotamento
sanitrio, coleta e destinao fi nal dos resduos slidos, drenagem
urbana, bem
como a higiene inadequada, se constituem em ameaas sade da
populao,
sobretudo para as pessoas mais pobres dos pases em
desenvolvimento.
A taxa de internaes por DRSAI (ocorrncias por 100 mil
habitantes) vem
se reduzindo no Pas, o que pode ser explicado pela melhoria nos
servios de sane-
amento e pela ampliao do acesso ao mesmo. importante ressaltar
que, apesar
da queda nas internaes por DRSAI, elas ainda so elevadas,
sobretudo em alguns
estados das Regies Norte e Nordeste, e que todas so doenas
evitveis com o
investimento em saneamento e aes preventivas. A anlise da
distribuio espacial
das doenas mostra desigualdades regionais e intrarregionais,
apesar da reduo
generalizada do nmero de internaes. Nas Unidades da Federao com
as maiores
taxas de internao, o acesso aos servios de saneamento menor e
vice-versa.
Entre as doenas de transmisso feco-oral, as diarreias ocupam o
primeiro lugar,
tendo sido responsveis pela maioria das internaes por DRSAI,
embora venham se
reduzindo no Pas. Elas atingem, principalmente, municpios das
Regies Nordeste e
Norte, e so um problema ainda maior quando conjugadas com uma
sade debilitada
e com a desnutrio, sendo uma causa de elevao da mortalidade
infantil.
A incidncia de dengue apresenta fortes oscilaes interanuais, com
picos de
nmero de ocorrncias muito elevados. Este padro tpico de doenas
causadas
por vrus que apresentam mais de uma variedade. A taxa de
incidncia foi maior, em
2008, nos Estados de Sergipe, Rio de Janeiro, Roraima e Rio
Grande do Norte, com
valores entre 1 123 e 1 428 casos por 100 mil habitantes. Os
Estados do Rio Grande
do Norte, Paraba e Sergipe tambm apresentaram, em 2008, as
maiores propores
de municpio com ocorrncia de dengue. O nmero de internaes
hospitalares
por dengue sofreu um ligeiro aumento de 1993 a 2008, mas ainda
menor (0,04
int./100 hab. em 2008) do que o de internaes por diarreias (0,26
int./100 hab.).
As internaes so mais elevadas em municpios do Par, Tocantins,
Cear, Rio
Grande do Norte, Paraba, Sergipe e Bahia (valores de 0,67 a 3,09
int./100 hab.).
Os servios de abastecimento de gua tm uma abrangncia maior no
Pas
do que os servios de coleta e tratamento de esgoto. Enquanto
mais de 90% dos
municpios brasileiros tm o servio de abastecimento por rede
geral de gua em
todos os seus distritos, sobretudo na Regio Sudeste, cerca de
40% dos municpios
possuem rede coletora de esgoto em todos os distritos. Quando o
assunto trata-
mento, da gua distribuda por rede geral e do esgoto coletado, a
abrangncia bem
menor. Pouco mais de 70% dos municpios tm todos os distritos com
tratamento
da gua distribuda e para o esgoto coletado este percentual no
alcana 20%. Mais
uma vez a Regio Sudeste aparece com percentuais mais elevados
que o restante do
Pas. Aproximadamente 28,5% dos municpios brasileiros faziam o
tratamento do
esgoto coletado em 2008, a maioria deles na Regio Sudeste,
sobretudo no Estado
de So Paulo. Entre os que possuem este servio, 72% tratam todo o
esgoto coletado.
Diante das condies gerais do saneamento ambiental no Brasil,
importante
destacar a necessidade de buscar a universalizao dos servios de
saneamento
bsico e de aumentar a qualidade dos mesmos, de modo a contribuir
para melhorar
a sade e o bem-estar da populao, e tornar o meio ambiente mais
saudvel. As
aes de saneamento reduzem a ocorrncia de doenas e evitam danos
ao ambiente,
especialmente aos solos e corpos hdricos.
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Atlas de saneamento 2011Saneamento e meio ambiente
Rede de abastecimento e tratamento de gua no municpio - 2008
Fonte: IBGE, Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Bsico 2008.
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Proporo de distritoscom tratamento de gua
!
!
O acesso gua por rede geral de abastecimento bastante difundido
no Brasil, sendo que mais de 90% dos municpios tm todos os
distritos atendidos por este servio. Os municpios sem atendimento
ou com atendimento parcial por rede geral concentram-se nas Regies
Norte e Centro-Oeste, e interior das Regies Nordeste e Sul. Nas
Regies Norte e Centro-Oeste isto ocorre em municpios de grande
extenso e populao rarefeita, onde a universalizao da distribuio de
gua por rede geral enfrenta obstculos muito grandes. A maior
abrangncia deste servio est na Regio Sudeste, com destaque para o
estado de So Paulo, onde a quase totalidade dos municpios tem
abastecimento de gua por rede geral em todosos distritos. Quanto ao
tratamento da gua distribuda, observa-se uma situao bem mais
precria, com propores menores de municpios e de distritos por
municpio com este servio. De modo geral pode-se afirmar que embora
o abastecimento de gua por rede geral possua uma ampla difuso pelo
territrio nacional, a garantia da qualidade desta gua ainda
deficiente. Mais uma vez, o estado de So Paulo destaca-se pela alta
proporo de municpios e de distritos por municpio com tratamento da
gua distribuda.
Distritos (%)
Sem servio
11,1 a 50,050,1 a 70,0
70,1 a 99,9100,0
!(
!(
!(
!(
!(
Distritos (%)
Sem servio
11,1 a 50,050,1 a 70,0
70,1 a 99,9100,0
!(
!(
!(
!(
!(
125 1250 250 375
PROJEO POLICNICA
ESCALA : 1 : 25 000 000500 km
O acesso gua por rede geral de abastecimento bastante di-
fundido no Brasil, sendo que mais de 90% dos municpios tm todos
os
distritos atendidos por este servio. Os municpios sem
atendimento ou
com atendimento parcial por rede geral concentram-se nas Regies
Norte
e Centro-Oeste e interior das Regies Nordeste e Sul. Nas Regies
Norte e
Centro-Oeste isto ocorre em municpios de grande extenso e
populao
rarefeita, onde a universalizao da distribuio de gua por rede
geral
enfrenta obstculos muito grandes. A maior abrangncia deste
servio est
na Regio Sudeste, com destaque para o Estado de So Paulo, onde a
quase
totalidade dos municpios tm abastecimento de gua por rede geral
em
todos os distritos. Quanto ao tratamento da gua distribuda,
observa-se
uma situao bem mais precria, com propores menores de
municpios
e de distritos por municpio com este servio. De modo geral,
pode-se
afi rmar que embora o abastecimento de gua por rede geral possua
uma
ampla difuso pelo Territrio Nacional, a garantia da qualidade
desta gua
ainda defi ciente. Mais uma vez, o Estado de So Paulo destaca-se
pela
alta proporo de municpios e de distritos por municpio com
tratamento
da gua distribuda.
Proporo de municpios com rede geral de abastecimento e
tratamento de gua em todos os distritos, segundo as Grandes Regies
- 2008
Brasil Norte Nordeste Sudeste Sul Centro-Oeste
%
Nota: Foram considerados como municpios com rede geral de
abastecimento e tratamento de gua aqueles em que todos os distritos
possuem, respectivamente, rede geral de abastecimento e tratamento
de gua.
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
Rede geral de gua Tratamento de gua
-
Atlas de saneamento 2011Saneamento e meio ambiente
Rede coletora e tratamento de esgoto no municpio - 2008
Fonte: IBGE, Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Bsico 2008.
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O C
E A
N O
A
T L
N
T I
C O
-10
-30
TRPICO DE CAPRICRNIO
-40-50-60-70
EQUADOR
-50 -40
-30
-20
-10
00EQUADOR
PALMAS
VITRIA
BELM
MANAUS
FORTALEZA
TERESINA
MACEI
SALVADOR
GOINIA
BELOHORIZONTE
CURITIBA
CUIAB
RECIFE
SO PAULO
MACAP
RIO BRANCO
SO LUS
JOO PESSOA
ARACAJU
FLORIANPOLIS
RIO DE JANEIRO
PORTO ALEGRE
PORTOVELHO
BOA VISTA
CAMPOGRANDE
NATAL
BUENOS AIRES
BOGOT
LA PAZ
MONTEVIDEO
CAYENNE
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ASUNCIN
D.F.
PARAN
B A H I A
TOCANTINS
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MATO GROSSO
G O I S
MINAS GERAIS
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RIO DE JANEIRO
SO PAULO
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RIO GRANDE DO SUL
AMAP
C O L O M B I A
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SURINAME GUYANE
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B O L I V I A
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TRPICO DE CAPRICRNIO
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EQUADOR
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-30
-20
-10
00EQUADOR
PALMAS
VITRIA
BELM
MANAUS
FORTALEZA
TERESINA
MACEI
SALVADOR
GOINIA
BELOHORIZONTE
CURITIBA
CUIAB
RECIFE
SO PAULO
MACAP
RIO BRANCO
SO LUS
JOO PESSOA
ARACAJU
FLORIANPOLIS
RIO DE JANEIRO
PORTO ALEGRE
PORTOVELHO
BOA VISTA
CAMPOGRANDE
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BUENOS AIRES
BOGOT
LA PAZ
MONTEVIDEO
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BRASLIA
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D.F.
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B A H I A
TOCANTINS
SERGIPE
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PIAU
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